Machiavelli, Niccolò (1469–1527)

Political science might have developed quite differently if, over the past centuries, the work of Niccolò Machiavelli had not been ridiculed and besmirched and its author not demonized. Rather than discussing why and how this happened, this entry will point out the essentials of the theory Machiavelli elaborated in his major political writings: The Prince, the Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius, and the History of Florence, highlighting two of his most prominent statements that invited outcry and refusal.

His must prominent statement is that “the end justifies the means” (The Prince, p. 94). This is not what he advocates or values, but the conclusion of his observations, as we see from the following quote:

In the Discourses (p. 120) we can read “a wise mind will never censure anyone for having employed any extraordinary means for the purpose of establishing a kingdom or constituting a republic. It is well that, when the act accuses him, the result should excuse.” Machiavelli is explicit that this argument only applies to forming or reforming the state. Moreover, he maintains that cruelties are cruelties, and cruelties have to be minimized. He fully accepts the Christian value system, but argues that in many cases peace and order can only be achieved through cruelty.

The second statement that became prominent is a question: “Is it better to be loved more than feared, or feared more than loved” (The Prince, p. 90). His answer:

There is nothing wrong with his answer; it describes a maximin solution. However, in general, maximin solutions are inefficient in variable-sum games; it seems that Machiavelli is quite aware of this and so he repeatedly proposes that the prince should seek the love of the people. It may prevent conspiracies from within, serve as a rampart against outside competitors (The Prince, pp. 96 and 108), or serve both roles: