Imperialism

The term imperialism has taken on a number of different meanings since it came into use in the 1840s. Broadly speaking, imperialism is the exertion of control or influence by a strong country over a weaker country by political, economic, or cultural means. Imperialism's main purpose is to enhance the dominant country's size, prestige, or resources to enable it to become or remain a leading power in the global system of states. Imperial control can be imposed formally, whereby the strong country assumes full political control of the weaker country, or informally, where the dominant country allows the weaker country to remain nominally sovereign but applies diplomatic, economic, or military pressure to force the weaker country to act in accordance with the dominant country's wishes.

Imperialism in its political form is the establishment and maintenance of empire: the dominant country claims sovereignty over and effectively governs a weaker country, making decisions on its behalf that shape its political and social development. The word imperialism was first used in this sense, referring to the expansionist policies of Napoleon Bonaparte. It gained prominence after 1872, when British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli employed the term while outlining his policy of colonial expansion. This explains why imperialism became associated with “colonialism,” more specifically European overseas expansion, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Of course, empires have existed since ancient times, and imperialism also applies to continental empires. However, the various theories of imperialism that have been generated relate mainly to the “New Imperialism” after 1870, when leading powers in Europe raced for colonies and spheres of influence around the globe. Imperial control was usually established by military conquest, leading Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter to conclude that military forces played a central role in prompting imperialism during this period. European countries were no longer at serious threat of war, so the [Page 341]military sought a new purpose and activity, which it found in the conquest of overseas territories. Imperialism was the displacement of European political competition to the international arena: through overseas expansion, a country could enhance its prestige without directly challenging other powers at home.

Economic concerns were integrally linked to territorial expansion. Colonial commercial activities were controlled by the imperial power and integrated into its global industrial complex. Liberal and Marxist theorists claimed that capitalist interests, rather than political exigencies, engendered imperialism and colonial exploitation. In 1902, British economist John Hobson argued that surplus capital was the “economic taproot” of imperialism: wealthy capitalists looking for greater profits than were available at home used their influence to persuade governments to annex overseas territories and open them for investment. Colonization accompanied colonialism, and governments colluded with wealthy settlers, providing them with choice lands and commercially profitable infrastructures, funded by taxpayers rather than by financiers. V. I. Lenin viewed imperialism as the highest, “monopoly stage” of capitalism, where a powerful and concentrated financial oligarchy directs state foreign policy to provide itself with secure markets, raw materials, and profitable outlets overseas. Inter-imperial rivalries lead to the territorial division of the world among a small number of capitalist powers that exploit a large and increasing number of weak countries forced to trade and accept goods on disadvantageous terms. Lenin argued that inter-imperial competitions would intensify once the entire world was carved up, leading to war between capitalist powers and eventually the collapse of capitalism. Thus, World War I was a clash of rival imperialisms.

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