Empire

Historical Background

Empires have existed since ancient times, at least since Sargon of Akkad formed the first Mesopotamian empire in 2300 BCE. Early empires were continental, with core territories located in the [Page 214]Middle East, Asia, North Africa, South America, and Europe. Some ancient empires, notably Rome, controlled far-flung territories, but their mode of expansion was overland rather than by sea. From the 15th century on, advances in seaborne technologies meant that maritime empires could form. Land empires continued to exist—the Ottoman, Russian, Chinese, and Austro-Hungarian empires survived into the 20th century—but overseas imperialism became the dominant form of territorial expansion, and the center of geopolitical power shifted to Western Europe. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain were the main imperial powers, extending their rule to the New World, Africa, South Asia, and the Caribbean. By the end of the 16th century, other imperial rivals—namely, France, England, and Holland—began to emerge, acquiring territories in the Americas, Southeast Asia, and Africa. Thereafter, the global power balance became multipolar, with different countries assuming the lead position and wars between imperial rivals resulting in territorial transfers between empires. In the late 19th century, three new European powers—Belgium, Italy, and Germany—joined the race for empires, as did two countries from outside the region, the United States and Japan, which expanded overland as well as overseas. European territorial annexations in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific between 1880 and 1900 resulted in 80% of the world's land being run by empires.

Systems of Coercion and Control

Empires combine coercive force with political control. The dual character of empires is contained in the word itself. Empire derives from the Latin imperium, which in ancient Rome meant “sovereignty,” or the legal authority to make and enforce laws and to wage war. During the reign of Augustus, the term gained a territorial dimension and the Imperium Romanum referred to Rome and its newly acquired dependencies as a single entity. The imperator or “emperor” was the new unit's head of state and military commander-in-chief. These words and their dual meanings were appropriated by later empires: in 1876, Queen Victoria declared herself “Empress of India,” whereas the highest official in most British colonies was the governor-general.

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