Greece

GREECE, ONE OF the birthplaces of democracy, is home to powerful leftist political forces that ruled the country almost continuously from 1981 to 2004. Although ousted from government in the March 2004 general elections, the socialist-led Greek left remains a potent source of generous patronage and a controversial symbol of runaway social spending and virulent anti-Americanism. Analysis of the left's recent evolution reveals two primary strains: 1) the difficulties of building party democracy when the party is a quasifamily dynasty, and 2) the pressures of trying to stay true to leftist ideology while simultaneously meeting the strict economic requirements of membership in the European Union (EU).

Throughout its modern history, Greece has struggled to consolidate democracy. Indeed, democracy in this cradle of ancient democratic political thought is a remarkably recent phenomenon. The struggle for contemporary Greek democracy out of which the political left emerged dates from World War II. Invaded first by Italy and then occupied by Nazi Germany, Greeks turned to the communist-led National Popular Liberation Army to instigate their often-heroic resistance. With sovereignty returned upon the war's end, Greece nevertheless fell prey to internal divisions and eventually civil war (1946–49). Bolstered by extensive economic and military assistance from the British (and later the Americans), a precarious conservative Greek government battled communists in a conflict that took more than 100,000 lives. With victory, the post-conflict rightist regime repressed the left and effectively elevated anti-communism to the status of state ideology.

The succession of right-wing governments came to an end only in 1963, when an increasingly restive middle class threw its support behind the left-wing Progressive Center Union. Relying on communist support to cobble together a majority government after the 1963 elections, the Union secured an absolute majority on its own in 1965. Subsequent tensions over historical animosities with Turkey in divided Cyprus and the open hostilities among the governing left, the army, and the king led in 1967 to seven years of military junta and what became known as the “rule of the colonels.” With competitive democracy restored in 1974, the left nevertheless languished. Conservative governments led by the New Democracy party of Konstantinos Karamanlis captured electoral victories and monopolized power until 1981.

The Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) is Greece's principal left-wing political party. PASOK's rise to power in 1981 coincided with Greece's accession to the European Community. The charismatic Andreas Papandreou, son of two-time prime minister George Papandreou, founded the party in 1974 and upon becoming prime minister aggressively pursued a successful brand of socialist populism coupled with anti-Americanism (a result of American support for the previous military regime). The socialists grew strong through the power of patronage—handing out civil service jobs generously and receiving electoral support in exchange. A governing ideology supportive of high levels of public spending to enhance social welfare stood consciously in contrast to American-style free-market capitalism. As a result, at least according to PASOK's critics, Greek government grew, the bureaucracy began to bloat, and corruption took hold.

Despite such charges, and perhaps as testament to the success of its patronage especially among blue-collar laborers and farmers, the socialists endured in power for two decades with only a brief interruption from 1990 to 1993. Andreas Papandreou served three terms as prime minister, finally yielding power in January 1996 shortly before his death. Assuming the party's (and country's) leadership upon the loss of PASOK's legendary founder, Costas Simitis gambled on early elections in September 1996 and held off the opposition conservatives. During his tenure as premier, Simitis struggled to rein in double-digit inflation and profligate spending.

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