Systems Theory

Systems theories are scientific descriptions not of single phenomena but of systematic relationships between individual parts. A system is generally understood as composed of elements that stand in a lasting connection with one another, thus forming a complex whole that can be separated by boundaries from an environment of elements not belonging to the system. Systems theory is based on the idea that the whole is irreducible to the sum of its parts (emergence) and that through the interaction among the parts, a specific capacity (function) is made possible. Systems research investigates the emergent order and functional logic of these connections based on the assumption that each larger unified whole possesses properties and regularities that are not observed in the parts. Whereas microanalytic research efforts, which predominate in communication science, accumulate ever more detailed knowledge of the relationships among a few variables, the systemic approach attempts to decipher the laws and principles of complex, interconnected wholes.

Because various material and non-material components can be understood as comprising a systemic whole, the system concept is used in a multitude of scientific disciplines. This has led to differentiation among a multitude of systems theories in different fields of research, among which cross-connections can be drawn via the system concept. General systems theory aims at finding general principles of the behavior of all systems based on the findings of systems research in different scientific disciplines (physics, biology, chemistry, psychology, the social sciences, philosophy, theology). Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901–1972), who was a biologist, is known as the father of general systems theory.

Social systems are regarded as extremely complex phenomena because they are composed of many elements that interact and relate to one another in a multitude of ways. It is also characteristic of social relationships that they frequently contain feedback loops. Due to these circular causal relationships, the momentum of social systems is not easily foreseeable, and they cannot be controlled through external influences in a targeted way. A distinction can be made among social science systems theories according to what they view as the basic element of a social system: individuals, social actions, or communication.

A number of prominent systems theories emerged in theory building in the 20thcentury. The American sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) is known as the founder of the structural functionalist systems theory (structural functionalism). Entirely within the tradition of holistic social theories (Herbert Spencer, Émile Durkheim, and others), Parsons starts out from the assumption that social phenomena can be understood sufficiently only when they are investigated in their systemic connection with other social phenomena, no matter whether these are human interactions or complex social structures. Structural functionalism formulates a universal answer to the question of what conditions (functional prerequisites) must be fulfilled in order for these systems to maintain themselves. Two analytic categories are central here. The relatively [Page 771]stable order of a given whole system is called its structure. Function is understood as a specific contribution made by the individual system element to the maintenance of the system as a whole. According to Parsons, a social system must perform four basic functions if it is to survive and continue. A system must be able to adapt to changing environmental conditions (adaptation). A system must formulate goals and be able to master instrumental problems in achieving those goals (goal attainment). Systems must be able to ensure the cohesion of the system (integration). A system must be able to manage and reduce tensions that arise among the elements (latent pattern maintenance). Referred to by the acronym AGIL, these four functional imperatives, which any society must accomplish to maintain itself, form the central instrument of structural functional analysis. With the aid of the AGIL scheme, each element in the system can be examined in terms of what it specifically contributes to which of the four basic functions. The stable order of a social system is then said to be explained, if it can be demonstrated that it contains sufficient functional elements and, at the same time, has the ability to eliminate dysfunctional components. In modern societies, four subsystems are responsible for maintaining the system: the economic system (adaptation), the political system (goal attainment), the legal system (integration), and education, religion, family, or the sociocultural system (latent pattern maintenance). In each of these subsystems, in turn, the same functional prerequisites must be served, just as they must be served in each organization system and action system of the subsystems.

...