Input–Process–Output Model of Team Effectiveness

Inputs

Inputs reflect the resources that groups have at their disposal and are generally divided into three categories: individual-level factors, group-level factors, and environmental factors. Individual-level factors are what group members bring to the group, such as motivation, personality, abilities, experiences, and demographic attributes. Examples of group-level factors are work structure, team norms, and group size. Environmental factors capture the broader context in which groups operate, such as reward structure, stress level, task characteristics, and organizational culture.

Processes

Processes are the mediating mechanisms that convert inputs to outputs. A key aspect of the definition is that processes represent interactions that take place among team members. Many different taxonomies of teamwork behaviors have been proposed, but common examples include coordination, communication, conflict management, and motivation.

In comparison with inputs and outputs, group processes are often more difficult to measure, because a thorough understanding of what groups are doing and how they complete their work may require observing members while they actually perform a task. This may lead to a more accurate reflection of the true group processes, as opposed to relying on members to self-report their processes retrospectively. In addition, group processes evolve over time, which means [Page 354]that they cannot be adequately represented through a single observation. These difficult methodological issues have caused many studies to ignore processes and focus only on inputs and outputs. Empirical group research has therefore been criticized as treating processes as a “black box” (loosely specified and unmeasured), despite how prominently featured they are in the IPO model. Recently, however, a number of researchers have given renewed emphasis to the importance of capturing team member interactions, emphasizing the need to measure processes longitudinally and with more sophisticated measures.

Outputs

Indicators of team effectiveness have generally been clustered into two general categories: group performance and member reactions. Group performance refers to the degree to which the group achieves the standard set by the users of its output. Examples include quality, quantity, timeliness, efficiency, and costs. In contrast, member reactions involve perceptions of satisfaction with group functioning, team viability, and personal development. For example, although the group may have been able to produce a high-quality product, mutual antagonism may be so high that members would prefer not to work with one another on future projects. In addition, some groups contribute to member well-being and growth, whereas others block individual development and hinder personal needs from being met.

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