Organizational Culture

From the Concept of Culture to Organizational Culture

Although somewhat contested, the concept of culture is widely used. There are endless debates about its meaning and its usefulness. Indeed, the concept of culture has never been the subject of so much discussion, [Page 1036]both in the field of anthropology, where it originated, and in the field of organizational studies. However, because it has been given so many different definitions, its status remains fragile and is often challenged.

To begin with, it would be a good idea to reflect on the usefulness of the concept of culture. What exactly is its purpose? It is used mainly to identify and denote differences. Which differences? That depends on the researcher's focus, and in part, it is this nuance that contributes to the confusion reigning over the concept of culture. In fact, the principal difference, at the very foundation of anthropology, can be found in the difference between nature and culture. The use of the concept of culture to speak of societies and human beings arises from the desire to emphasize the differences between humans and the rest of the animal kingdom. Human beings are different from other animals. What is the nature of this difference? Mainly, the ability humans have to make representations of the world and to use these representations to transform it. This difference could be, and has been, formulated in other ways, and the advantage of one or another formulation could be argued. But what is essential is the idea that we want to draw attention to the differences and, in so doing, constitute a common core of elements specific to humans (the vaunted universals). Whether these differences are mainly symbolic or material is not important; in any case, they are intertwined. What is important is that they distinguish humans from the rest of the animal kingdom.

The concept of culture is also used to differentiate human beings from one another, for example, to draw attention to the different societies that humans have built up over centuries in various parts of the world. And it is here that some confusion sets in. Do we use the same definition to differentiate human beings from one another and to compare humans with the rest of nature? Can the ability to make representations of the world be the reference point? Some researchers emphasize mainly these more mental, more symbolic elements. Others believe additional dimensions, such as practices or material productions, should also be emphasized since culture cannot be reduced solely to the mental representations of the individuals who construct it. In fact, representations, models, values, and symbols are inseparable from behaviors, actions, and practices. Together they form cultural configurations, that is, cultures.

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