Morale

Conceptual Overview

On an individual level, morale reflects psychological well-being based on a sense of confidence, usefulness, and purpose. One conceptualization looks at morale as a quality of mind and spirit based on such factors as courage, self-discipline, and endurance. Within this context, low morale is suggested to imply that the individual sees himor herself as someone who is powerless or socially unimportant. High morale, in contrast, is manifested when an individual shows determination to do his or her best regardless of the circumstance.

Morale also has been described as an attitudinal reaction to how one is treated by his or her organization. Good treatment typically results in high morale and positive feelings, which can lead to such outcomes as higher productivity and work quality, dedication to the organization and its objectives, and lower turnover. Low morale tends to spill over to other areas and activities in the organization and can negatively affect motivation, productivity, and one's sense of general discontent, including feelings of loss and alienation. One of the most common outcomes of low morale is a simple withdrawal of cooperation. With a sense of loss and a decrease in loyalty, organizational members reduce their level of enthusiasm and the dedication with which they carry out their responsibilities.

At the group level, morale reflects the spirit of a group that makes its members want the group to succeed. Group morale typically refers to the level of enthusiasm, energy, and general well-being that exists in a group and is often referred to as esprit de corps, team spirit, or more recently group mood (i.e., relatively enduring affective state of a work group). This focus grew out of the Hawthorne Studies and our realization of the significant role that feelings, sentiments, and interactions between people in work groups have on member attitudes and performance. A growing body of research has subsequently focused on group dynamics and how people experience the workplace, associating low group morale with higher levels of group apathy, social loafing, and free-rider behavior.

Critical Commentary and Future Directions

Because the concept focuses on both the individual and group levels, there is a lack of clarity in its definition. Researchers continue to debate whether morale is an individual perception or a collective property, or [Page 917]both, with some defining it as an individually held set of beliefs while others conceptualize morale as a collective trait that reflects peoples' affective responses to their organization. As a result, the concept is increasingly used in conjunction with, or is replaced by, other job-related attitudes such as job satisfaction or team spirit.

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