Impression Management

Conceptual Overview

Impression management refers to self-presentation behaviors that individuals use to control the perceptions that others have of them, as noted by Edward E. Jones and Thane S. Pittman in 1982. Impression management occurs when individuals convey particular impressions of their skills and abilities, attitudes and emotions, or other personal characteristics to others in an attempt to influence them and obtain desired outcomes.

Researchers have identified five different types of impression management tactics that individuals use to influence others. First, individuals may flatter others, providing gifts and support to others, or do favors for them, seeking to ingratiate themselves. Alternatively, individuals may engage in self-promotion, making sure others are aware of their skills, status, and achievements, and that these are presented in the best possible light. Third, individuals may project themselves as organizational “citizens,” always undertaking extra work and going far beyond what their job requires, in an attempt to influence others by providing a good example, engaging in what is termed exemplification. The fourth type of impression management, supplication, is the opposite of self-promotion and exemplification. In supplication, individuals are seeking to be perceived as weak and needy, and may beg for help or assistance. Finally, the most negative form of impression management involves threatening and bullying behavior resulting in intimidation of others. This final form of impression management causes the target to feel afraid not to comply, even though the actions taken may be subtle rather than overt, such as stressing the decision-making power or influence that the intimidating person has.

With the exception of intimidation, most impression management involves efforts to present a socially desirable impression. People are more likely to influence others if they are perceived as skilled, likeable, of high status and good character, or otherwise socially desirable. People are motivated to manage how others perceive them when they believe that these perceptions will affect their attainment of outcomes, such as rewards. Impressions are generally created through the behaviors that an individual displays, including his or her communication, nonverbal cues, and general demeanor. In addition to the behaviors themselves, others' perceptions are influenced by the timing, frequency, and consistency of an individual's presentation of himself or herself. Initial impressions can be particularly powerful. This is why people often hear advice to “create a positive first impression” in obtaining a job or meeting someone for the first time. Impression management has been linked to a variety of positive outcomes for individuals, including enhanced social attractiveness, so that the individual is seen as a good potential team member, coworker, or boss. Impression management, particularly its more positive forms, has also been linked to increased performance ratings and promotions, increased compensation and other rewards, and career success.

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