Communication

Conceptual Overview

At least three different perspectives on communication can be distinguished. The information-processing perspective was developed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in the 1950s. The Shannon-Weaver model views communication as the transmission of information in the form of a message from a source to a receiver via some channel. Channels are media that are subject to the negative effects of noise, which interferes with the transmission of the message. The receiver may give the source feedback to indicate whether the message has been received and understood. Fidelity signals the effectiveness of communication or the degree to which the source's intended message was accurately transmitted to the receiver. Efficiency refers to the amount of resources needed to transmit the message in terms of time, effort required, bandwidth utilized, and so forth. In this perspective, effective communication is accurate transmission of a message utilizing the minimum necessary resources. Important functions of communication in this perspective include information exchange, uncertainty reduction, analysis of information and ideas, and influence via persuasive messages.

The information-processing perspective locates communication in these five basic elements—source, receiver, message, channel, and feedback. Characteristics of the source that influence communication effectiveness include credibility, which increases the willingness of the receiver to accept and believe the message; and cognitive complexity, which increases the ability of the source to craft a message welladapted to the receiver. Important message characteristics include argument strategy (e.g., rational versus emotional appeal), evidence, and message complexity. Receiver characteristics such as similarity to the source, demographics, and innovativeness moderate the impact of messages. Both fidelity and efficiency of communication are influenced by channel factors such as the type of media and number of links bAetween the source [Page 206]and the receiver. Redundant communication channels and timely feedback improve fidelity, but the costs of using extra channels must be taken into account.

The information-processing perspective brings precision to the analysis of communication. It identifies the major elements of the communication system and provides an understanding for what makes communication effective and how it might be improved. Critics argue, however, that this model reduces communication, which is inherently rich with multiple meanings, to well-defined “buckets” or messages that contain the meaning of the communication. This approach also has difficulties with accuracy in that the receiver may add meaning to the message based on his or her knowledge or perspective. Hence, it is unclear whether the meaning inferred parallels the sender's intent or is simply an interpretation added as part of the reception process.

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