Special Forces

Elite military units specially organized and trained to conduct unconventional warfare, usually behind enemy lines. Special operations forces (SOF) work in small units and the selection process for SOF operators is extremely demanding. SOF units use their specialized skills to gain an advantage over numerically superior adversaries, using surprise to exploit weaknesses in an opponent's defenses. Other distinctive characteristics of SOF units include self-sufficiency and the ability to operate under a variety of conditions. Special forces often possess unique language skills and traditionally have trained and worked with indigenous forces.

Mission and Organization

The line between conventional and unconventional operations is often fuzzy. In practice, it is sometimes difficult to isolate missions that are the unique purview of special forces. This is because conventional forces also operate in hostile environments and perform many of the same missions as SOF units.U.S. military doctrine tries to clarify the distinction by declaring that SOF units operate in “hostile, denied, or politically sensitive areas.” In other words, SOF is [Page 673]used in places where it is not feasible to apply overt conventional force.

Special Forces Missions

The U.S. Department of Defense distinguishes nine principal SOF missions. These include direct action, special reconnaissance, foreign internal defense, unconventional warfare, counterterrorism, psychological operations, civil affairs, counterproliferation, and information operations.

Direct actions include guidance for precision weapons systems, mine warfare, and personnel rescue. Special reconnaissance involves human intelligence gathering in hostile or denied areas. Foreign internal defense means helping foreign host governments fight domestic insurgents. Unconventional warfare is composed of a range of activities including sabotage and guerrilla warfare. Counterterrorism relies on intelligence gathering and preemptive strikes. Psychological operations help missions succeed by influencing the emotions or objective reasoning of targets. Civil affairs are efforts to encourage and maintain positive interaction with local military and civilian officials. Counterproliferation involves intelligence gathering to stem the spread of weapons of mass destruction. Finally, information operations target enemy command and communications networks.

In addition to the nine principal SOF missions, there are six collateral missions. These include coalition support, combat search and rescue, counterdrug activities, countermine activities, foreign humanitarian assistance, and security assistance. The last category is special activities, or covert missions that are not publicly acknowledged by the United States. Such activities require presidential approval and strict congressional oversight.

Special Forces Organization

Each military service has its own dedicated special forces. The United States Special Operations Command (SOCOM) oversees the SOF of all services. These forces usually are deployed to regional combatant commands, but also may be integrated into a number of different command authorities depending on location and the nature of the deployment.

Contemporary Army SOF units include, among others, Army Special Operations Forces (Green Berets) and Rangers. Delta Force is a more recent addition, created in the late 1970s as a counterterrorism unit proficient in civilian rescue. Air Force parachute-rescue jumpers (PJs) act as ground-based forward air controllers and specialists in combat search and rescue. Navy SEALs are experts at underwater demolition and amphibious infiltration. Marine Force Recon is an elite unit, even though elitism is anathema to corps culture. Although these units each have different specialties, all operatives undergo thorough military training and pride themselves on flexibility and adaptability.

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