Spanish-American War (1898)

Between the United States and Spain (April 21–August 12), brief war fought mainly in the Spanish colonial territories of Cuba and the Philippines and considered a turning point in the history of U.S. foreign relations. Victory in the Spanish-American War quickly went to the United States, and peace negotiations resulted in U.S. control over Cuba, and the annexation of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The Spanish-American War turned the United States into a world power, as it removed Spain from the Western Hemisphere and established an important U.S. presence in the Pacific.

Cuban revolutionaries had been fighting Spanish colonialists since the 1860s. U.S. public support for the Cuban cause grew as the rebels gained ground in the late 1890s. The U.S. press strongly promoted intervention on behalf of Cuba and published accounts of Spanish concentration camps and of the destruction of U.S. property on the island. Expansionist politicians, U.S. business interests, and general public opinion also favored war against Spain and urged a reluctant President William McKinley to intervene on behalf of Cuba.

On February 15, 1898, the U.S. battleship Maine, which had been sent to Havana Harbor to protect U.S. citizens and property, was hit by an explosion and [Page 672]sunk, killing more than 250 men. Although a thorough investigation eventually concluded that technical problems had caused the explosion, the U.S. public and Congress concluded that the Spanish had attacked the Maine and as a result, prowar sentiment in the United States was further incensed.

The U.S. Congress began preparations for war as President McKinley demanded that Spain grant Cuba its independence and withdraw from the island after U.S. mediation. Spain refused and declared war on the United States on April 24; Congress then issued an April 21 retroactive declaration of war on Spain.

The ensuing conflict was tilted in favor of U.S. forces. Admiral George Dewey led a quick and easy naval victory over the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, Philippines. With the help of Filipino forces, U.S. land forces soon occupied Manila and the whole island of Luzon. War was also waged in Cuba, where 16,000 U.S. troops, including Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders, captured Santiago by July 17. The island of Puerto Rico was quickly occupied in August. An armistice was signed on August 12, 1898.

The Treaty of Paris peace agreement was ratified by the U.S. Senate on February 6, 1899. Although Cuba was now free, the United States forced the Cuban Constitutional Convention to accept the Platt Amendment, which, among other provisions, gave the United States the power to intervene in Cuba to protect Cuban sovereignty. The Platt Amendment also established a 99-year lease of the naval base at Guantánamo in Cuba, and it forced enactment of programs to make Cuba more attractive to U.S. investors. Puerto Rico also was annexed by the United States as an unincorporated territory, and its inhabitants were not made U.S. citizens until 1917. Guam also was ceded to the United States as part of the peace agreements that ended the war.

U.S. commercial and military interests also led to a demand for the annexation of the Philippines. The strategic importance of a Manila base allowed easier access to Chinese trading ports and would prevent U.S. commercial rivals France, Germany, and Great Britain from seizing the islands. Philippine rebels fighting Spanish colonialists had initially welcomed and fought alongside the U.S. troops. However, when it became clear that the United States was not leaving the islands, fierce fighting erupted between the rebels and U.S. troops and lasted through 1901. Lower-level conflict continued until 1913.

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