Realism

Political theory that conceives of world affairs as a struggle for power among nations. Realism discounts moral considerations in foreign policy, and asserts that a state can achieve security only by amassing power. States project power mainly by relying on force or the threat of force.

Variations of realist theory have dominated the study of international relations since World War II, especially in the United States, in which realism also influenced policymakers. Rival theories question real-ism's most fundamental assumptions. Yet realism remains relevant, even in an interdependent world plagued by nonstate threats, such as the international terrorist group al-Qaeda.

According to realists, the struggle for power among nations is rooted in human nature. When nations find that their interests coincide, they collaborate. However, when nations' interests clash, rivalry and conflict [Page 623]ensue. To survive, states must follow national interests by maximizing their power.

Realists admit that skilled diplomacy can achieve mutual accommodation, but they reject idealist visions of durable peace, trust, and cooperation among countries. Realists are skeptical about the possibility of moral progress or human improvement; they believe that wars are bound to occur because of an innate lust for power and because there is no overarching authority to impose peace. Relations among states are inherently competitive, especially in the field of military security.

Proponents

Realism rose to the fore after World War II, but its origins can be traced back to the 5th century BCE. The ancient Greek historian Thucydides attributed the Peloponnesian War (between Athens and Sparta) to the growth of Athenian power and the fear that it evoked in Sparta. In his Melian Dialogue, Thucydides observed that the strong do what they will; the weak do what they must.

Realist themes resurfaced in The Prince (1513), a treatise on princely rule by Renaissance Italian political leader Niccolò Machiavelli. Dismissing all ethical considerations, Machiavelli focused on the strength of the ruler as the prime factor for successful government.

In the 1930s, British political scientist and historian Edward H. Carr argued for realism in the study of international relations. Carr advocated realism as an antidote to what he saw as utopianism or wishful thinking in the League of Nations and in U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's ideal of self-determination for all nations.

Realism was most compellingly systematized by the German-born American political scientist Hans Morgenthau in Politics Among Nations (1948). Morgenthau argued that political leaders could deduce rational and objectively correct policies from the immutable laws of nature that govern politics. He conceived of power as the principal goal in international relations, and he defined the national interest in terms of power. Morgenthau's views inspired generations of scholars and practitioners of international politics in North America and Western Europe.

Assumptions

Realist theory assumes that the state is the most important actor in world affairs. It discounts other actors above the state level (such as the European Union or the United Nations) and below the state level (such as terrorist networks, multinational corporations, and ethnic minorities within states). The state is also assumed a single unit (ignoring divisions among government bureaucracies such as the State Department and the Pentagon) that acts based on a rational calculation of costs and benefits. From a realist point of view, the international system is one of anarchy, with no authority capable of enforcing rules on sovereign states.

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