Great Power Rivalry

Prevalent form of major-power interaction that shapes international relations for major and minor powers and defines the scope and incidence of major conflicts. Great power rivalries have existed throughout history, from the ancient rivalries between Athens and Sparta and between Rome and Carthage to the superpower rivalry that existed during the Cold War era between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Origins of Great Power Rivalry

In an unregulated international system, states are concerned primarily with their own security. Those with the greatest resources—which includes the so-called great powers—seek to protect themselves from those with comparable resources (other great powers) that could pose a legitimate threat. In such an environment, states attempt to protect their current advantages, develop additional ones, and exploit the weaknesses of others. As one great power ascends relative to another, the other state will often attempt to reverse these gains. This creates a rivalry between the powers, and the two powers will increasingly come into conflict over the appropriate distribution of power in the world system.

Rivalries are created and fueled by changes in the relative capabilities of great powers in the international system. When one state suddenly acquires great power status, it disturbs the existing power structures. Other states, feeling threatened by this change, may enter into conflict or competition with the newcomer. An existing great power that increases its capabilities may gain a significant, power-shifting advantage over its rivals. The perception of the threat by other powers may lead them into conflict with the upstart power, or it may spur retaliatory military spending. True rivalries exist when the threat or use of military force is a real and ever-present possibility and the rival poses a serious threat to others.

Such rivalries have substantial implications for the powers themselves, as well as for small states and the system as a whole. Strong states must commit a substantial part of their resources to ensuring that their power remains at least constant. In situations of intense rivalry, part of this expenditure must be directed toward ensuring the security of smaller allies. These smaller allies, in turn, may lose some autonomy in charged or unstable situations. They will frequently act as a balance against a threatening power by allying with the rival to allay immediate security concerns. In the process, however, they become subject to the security constraints of their new ally.

Effects of Great Power Rivalry

Great powers enter into significant disputes over issues such as security policies, arms development, military actions, territory, transit, commercial access, trade balances, spheres of influence, and other areas [Page 301]that determine their military and economic power relative to other great powers. The great powers thus form a security complex: The security of each state in the great power system is crucially linked to the security policies of other, equally strong states. Decisions made by one state in these areas will necessarily have a great impact on the decisions of the other states. Within this complex system, however, there may be a great deal of insecurity.

To preserve their status and power, major states may engage in multiple strategies. Security (and related territorial) concerns frequently develop into arms races as each great power attempts to develop more efficient and effective weaponry and produce more arms. Moreover, the great powers will attempt to pursue new strategies in warfare (such as lightning wars versus wars of attrition) to gain advantages. Rivalries may result in threats or use of force.

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