Technology

The Evolution of Technology

The Ondes Martenot and the Theremin (ca. 1920s) are examples of instrument technology that relied upon electrical methods for sound reproduction. The Ondes Martenot used a keyboard similar to [Page 1102]an organ and a loudspeaker to reproduce sound via frequency oscillations in vacuum tubes. The Theremin differed slightly in design, if not in timbre, through the way it was played. Two antennas were used in the design to control both amplitude and frequency. The proximity of the performer's hands to these antennas could then control both the pitches and amplitude produced by the instrument.

Further developments of electronic instruments include analog synthesizers after the invention of the transistor. This provided opportunities for pioneers such as Robert Moog to design more reliable and cheaper electronic instruments. The first commercially available Moog synthesizer became available in the mid-1960s, and found its way into mainstream music through albums such as Strange Days by the Doors (1967). The first commercially successful digital synthesizer was the Yamaha DX-7 (1983), and features on many popular music recordings of that time. It used a form of synthesis known as frequency modulation (FM) to produce a range of sounds that attempted to mimic acoustic instruments, but could also create distinct timbral effects. Manufacturers allied with research teams developed forms of synthesis to create digital synthesizers. Other distinctive designs include the Roland D-50 and the Korg M1, which were considerably used in the late 1980s and early 1990s popular music.

The electric guitar was invented in the 1930s, and came to prominence in popular music-making in the 1950s and 1960s. The possibility to amplify the sound of a guitar for use in large ensembles such as the Big Bands of the 1930s helped to establish the modified acoustic guitar. Solid-body electric guitars came about in the early 1950s, developed by companies such as Fender and Gibson. These developments led to the electric guitar becoming a mainstream solo and rhythm instrument in popular music culture. Studies within ethnomusicology have focused on “the new guitarscape” and ideas concerning the instrument. An examination of the instrument in different contexts focuses on cultural practice and musical performance within a critical theory framework.

The invention of the gramophone dominated the production and consumption of music in the early part of the 20th century. Early developments included the use of a flat disc as the recording medium, with a stylus moving across the disc to cut a groove that could be played back. Artists at the beginning of the 20th century began to adopt the new medium, most notably Italian Tenor Enrico Caruso, as means of reaching a wider audience. The first widely available medium of the 20th century was the 78 rpm, followed by the 45 rpm (single) and 33 rpm (long play album) later in the same century. It was during the adoption of the 78 rpm that industry focus shifted away from mechanical production of records through acoustic methods to electrical capture of sound waves; engineers moved away from using a horn to capture and reproduce sound to using a microphone and loudspeaker. The development of the long play album enabled artists to explore between themes within recorded music, and the concept album became a popular approach to studio recording. Early examples include works by Woody Guthrie, Johnny Cash and, subsequently, bands such as the Beach Boys and then the Beatles.

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