Tokenism/Psychology of Tokenism

In any social group, a category of people (e.g., women, people of color) may be underrepresented. When this discrepancy is extreme (less than 15% of the group), those individuals are considered to be token representatives of their group. If someone is the only group representative, she or he is defined as having solo status. Anyone can be a token or solo if underrepresented in a group, such as two men in a workplace of women. However, as a result of poor treatment from majoritygroup members, being a token or solo from a lowstatus group (e.g., racial minorities, women) is often associated with negative outcomes, such as increased depression and social withdrawal.

Visibility, contrast, and role encapsulation are three challenges faced by tokens. First, tokens are more visible. Because others pay a disproportionate amount of attention to them and are aware of their actions and behaviors, tokens may feel they are continually being scrutinized. Tokens may also be self-conscious about what they say and do because they are treated as representatives of their entire group (e.g., presuming one Latina's opinion reflects those of all Latinos/as). Further, tokens often feel pressure to work especially hard to have their achievements, rather than their group membership, recognized. Tokens may also be concerned that any poor performance will be interpreted as characteristic of their entire group's abilities. At the same time, tokens' performance may actually suffer because self-consciousness, impression management, and anxiety (caused by being the focus of majority-group members) are cognitive distractions that can interfere with their ability to focus on relevant information (e.g., recalling class lectures).

[Page 456]Second, majority-group members often contrast differences between themselves and tokens, creating artificial boundaries between the groups. These boundaries protect majority-group members who are unsure about the attitudes and beliefs of tokens, but also serve to isolate token individuals socially. Tokens may also isolate themselves because of poor treatment, or expectations of poor treatment, by majority-group members. Sometimes group boundaries are permeated, particularly when tokens are perceived to be exceptions to their group (e.g., being perceived as intelligent when other group members are perceived as dumb). However, although this can lead tokens to be included in the majority group, it may isolate them from their token group.

Finally, tokens undergo role encapsulation, or being forced to play a role based on stereotypes of their group. Tokens may be limited to stereotyped opportunities and roles (e.g., African Americans as athletes or janitors). When tokens fear confirming negative stereotypes about their group, they experience stereotype threat. Stereotype threat may interfere with performance in the stereotyped area (e.g., women performing poorly on a math test) because tokens fear they will be unfairly evaluated on the basis of the stereotype, not because they personally believe that the stereotype is true.

Although tokens may overcome these negative experiences and the mistaken beliefs of majoritygroup members, the process can be demanding. Therefore, reducing the difficulties associated with token or solo status requires there to be more diversity within any group so that no group is underrepresented, and that all groups attain equality in their social status.

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