Self-Esteem

Self-Esteem Defined

According to the most widely cited definition, proposed by Morris Rosenberg in 1965, self-esteem is an individual's overall appraisal of himself or herself. This appraisal is made by examining the totality of the individual and includes reflections on identity (who one is); life products (what one does); possessions (what one has); appearance (what one looks like); and associations and attachments (to whom one is connected). Within each characteristic, a number of tangible (e.g., physical appearance, financial assets) and intangible (e.g., reputation, power) qualities influence the appraisal. Individuals rate their experiences related to each characteristic by judging their actual behaviors and experiences to those of a self-determined ideal standard (e.g., mentor, God). If the summative evaluation is positive, one can be said to have high self-esteem. If the overall evaluation is negative, the person is regarded as having low self-esteem.

Although we would intuitively believe that having high self-esteem is the opposite of having low self-esteem, this is not the case. Persons with high self-esteem generally have a favorable opinion of themselves. On the other hand, those with low self-esteem typically do not have unfavorable views of themselves but rather seem to lack positive beliefs about themselves. If we consider this as a mathematical computation, a person would have a more negative (low) self-esteem if he or she perceived more negative (or neutral) values than positive ones.

Self-Esteem across the Life Span

Self-esteem begins at birth and ends at death. It is considered a trait that evolves continuously over time. Children generally have high levels of self-esteem as a consequence of highly positive (and often unrealistic) views of themselves. As they move into adolescence, self-esteem drops as teens experience anxiety about how they will be perceived by their peers and whether they will fit in. The move from adolescence to young adulthood and then to middle adulthood marks a slow rise in self-esteem as individuals experience successful life milestones (e.g., graduation, gainful employment, marriage). Self-esteem peaks in late midlife as individuals become more established in their work and personal lives and begin to see the accomplishments of their offspring (e.g., graduation, employment). People in their early 60s have the highest level of self-esteem. A more dramatic decline in [Page 421]self-esteem is seen during the 70s and 80s as people face losses in mental and physical skills and the death of loved ones (e.g., spouse, peers).

Self-Esteem and Racial and Ethnic Minorities

Racial and ethnic minority group members form self-esteem based on feelings of self-worth (personal self-esteem) and feelings about their membership in a particular racial or ethnic group (group self-esteem). Wade Nobels proposed a model for explaining the concept of self in African Americans; however, the model can easily be applied to all racial and ethnic minorities. The model postulates that the concept of self is a social process that comprises self-perceptions, internalized attitudes, and perceptions of one's racial or ethnic group. The latter is more complex than the exclusive consideration of feelings about one's own racial or ethnic group. Specifically, among African Americans (but arguably among other minorities as well), group identity includes attitudes about being a member of the African American (or other cultural group) community and feelings about being a member of the society at large. Therefore, members of racial and ethnic minority groups have dual identities and social positions that must be accounted for when evaluating personal worth and value. Group self-esteem is thus influenced by relatives, friends, cultural history (e.g., slavery, Civil Rights movement), and influential community agencies (e.g., African American church) for the community self. Other racial or ethnic group members, media, government agencies (e.g., police, court system), and corporations influence the society-at-large self.

...