Ethnic Studies

Although research on racial and ethnic groups and their interrelations had long existed in the United States, ethnic studies as a discipline did not emerge until the late 1960s. Before then, there existed no ethnic studies programs and no ethnic studies faculty, and almost no ethnic studies courses were offered at universities and colleges. School curricula primarily reflected Eurocentric histories and views; they largely overlooked the histories, cultures, and perspectives of minority groups. Faculty and administrators of higher education were predominantly white males. Ethnic studies was not a concern of American society; ethnicity was often perceived as an obstacle to the full assimilation of ethnic groups into the mainstream of society. The emphasis of American society at that time was on assimilation into white Anglo-Saxon Protestant culture.

The tumultuous 1960s witnessed waves of social movements and social unrest. The modern civil rights movement, which began in the 1950s, culminated in the mid-1960s, resulting in the enactment of the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964. More and more Americans came to agree with the principle that all Americans, regardless of their race or ethnicity, should be treated equally, should have equal access to higher education, and should have their voices heard and their perspectives reflected in higher education. The women's liberation movement emerged in about the same period, adding its demand for equal rights and an equal voice to the foray. Anti-Vietnam War demonstrations erupted across the nation. Outside the United States, third world peoples were rising up against colonialism, especially in Africa.

These movements inspired student activism on university campuses. In 1968, students at San Francisco State College (now San Francisco State University), led by a coalition of separate ethnic action groups known as the Third World Liberation Front, staged the first strike for the creation of an ethnic studies program. In 1969, students at the University of California (UC), Berkeley, organized by their Third World Liberation Front rallied for their ethnic studies program. The students rebelled against the status quo and denounced racism, sexism, and elitism. These events culminated in students’ occupation of the [Page 819]administrative offices at both campuses, with a demand for fundamental changes in higher education. The movement soon spread to many other campuses across the country. Students of color, as well as their white supporters, demanded better access to higher education, changes in curricula to reflect their ethnic cultures and perspectives, recruitment of minority faculty, and establishment of ethnic studies programs.

As a result, ethnic studies programs were created in the late 1960s and the early 1970s as “fire insurance” to appease militant students. Among the pioneers were the School of Ethnic Studies at San Francisco State University and the Ethnic Studies Department at University of California, Berkeley. Following their lead, black, Asian American, Chicano/Chicana, and Native American studies programs mushroomed across the nation. Scholars began to pay greater attention to ethnic issues. Ethnic groups, especially minority groups, started to emphasize ethnic consciousness, ethnic identity, and ethnic pride. Slogans such as “Black is beautiful,” “Brown is beautiful,” and “Yellow is mellow” partly reflected this shift. Terms indicating ethnic identities, such as African American, Japanese American, Mexican American, and Jewish American became buzzwords. Societal emphasis gradually shifted from assimilation toward ethnic distinctiveness. Ethnic studies as a discipline grew out of this historical context.

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