Puerto Rico

Effects of Colonization

Spanish colonization shaped family roles and practices. Machismo and marianismo contribute to male dominance and female submissiveness. Familismo means that family well-being is more important than individual advancement. Families experience tension between traditional family roles and women's paid employment. Many families were displaced by massive male migration for agricultural and industrial work, with women and children left behind.

Many practicing Catholics incorporate images and objects in everyday life. Milagros, which are objects representing a body part, can be offered to a saint for relief from an ailment. Some Puerto Ricans practice espiritismo (spiritualism) or Santeria, an Afro-Caribbean belief system. Many Puerto Rican women diverge from Catholic Church teachings on contraception, which is used by 78 percent of women in union. Sterilization is most common, particularly for women with less education. The birth control pill and contraceptive foam were first introduced in Puerto Rico, where drug trials took place.

More than 90 percent of women receive prenatal care, about three-quarters from the first trimester. Pregnant adolescents, women over 35 years of age, and others at risk are eligible for the Healthy Start program, which includes home visits and health education during pregnancy and following birth.

The Virgin of the Divine Providence, a patron of Puerto Rico. The Catholic Church has strong influence on cultural norms.

In 1902, Isabel Gonzalez, a single, pregnant mother, failed to gain entry to the mainland at Ellis Island under U.S. immigration policy. Gonzalez challenged immigration authorities in federal court, claiming she was a U.S. citizen.

In Gonzalez v. Williams, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled Puerto Ricans were not aliens. The 1904 ruling was the first step toward statutory U.S. citizenship for Puerto Ricans in 1917 and full citizenship

in 1940.