Panama

The Republic of Panama, a 30,000-square-mile stretch of land in Central America, is bordered by both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, between Colombia and Costa Rica. The current birthrate of 2.4 children per woman fell from 6 in the 1960s, but is high for some indigenous groups. Women are having fewer children and having them later; many postpone motherhood for work. Most families use domestic workers and family for day-care. Women are eligible for 14 weeks of paid maternity leave, and four weeks for adoption. Although the living standard is high for Central America, the poverty rate still is 40 percent. Twenty-two percent of all households and 37 percent of lower-income households are female headed.

The low divorce rate of 1.2 percent reflects legal unions, but most unions are not legal or religious. Consensual unions are registered and may become legal after five years. The majority of children are born outside of marriage or legal unions.

Spanish colonization influenced a culture of machismo and marianismo, with the man as head of household and the woman as selfless mother. Urban women, women with more education, and women in the labor force are challenging traditional roles, but working women retain responsibility for the home and children. Women are responsible for the family's religious life. Despite Catholic Church teachings, 70 percent of all women in union and 28 percent of indigenous women use birth control. Indigenous women may not use birth control for religious reasons or because of partner disapproval. Sterilization was often used for family planning, but younger women are more likely to abort an unwanted pregnancy, which is illegal except in rare circumstances.

On average, 92.5 percent of all births and 57.4 percent of indigenous births are attended by skilled medical personnel. The government offers free maternity care to women who cannot afford it, but many rural and indigenous women cannot reach the clinics. Geographic isolation and deeply rooted cultural beliefs may complicate care. Some indigenous people view modern health services with suspicion; traditional birthing practices may be discouraged in hospitals. Primary school is compulsory. School is free through the secondary level, where enrollment is 60 percent. Girls can work legally in agriculture or as domestics at age 12; some abandon their studies to migrate to find work.

The Feminist National Party, founded in 1923, was one of the first feminist parties in Latin America. [Page 966]In 1995, the Ministry of Labor's Women's Department began to focus on economic, cultural, and social development of women. Mireya Moscoso, widow of President Arnulfo Arias and mother, was the first female president of Panama. Esther Neira de Calvo, educator, writer, and mother, advocated for women's educational opportunities.