The Nation of Islam

Arising amidst the segregation, racial violence, and economic disparity of the early twentieth century, the Nation of Islam (NOI) was embraced by black Americans yearning for racial pride. By proposing a model of masculinity founded upon a vigilant defense of African-American society and culture, a quest for financial independence, and a reclaiming of self-mediated identity, the NOI offered a striking alternative to extant white paradigms that devalued black men's intellects and abilities and African-American models that emphasized racial assimilation. Since that time, this movement has continued to promote a style of masculinity and a social agenda welcomed by many African Americans, particularly marginalized ones.

In the 1910s, a surge of black nationalism swept the United States. Groups such as Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association sought self-determination, economic sovereignty, and, often, repatriation to Africa. The NOI surfaced during the Great Depression to address the concerns of large numbers of southern blacks moving to northern cities. Faced with discrimination and an impoverished lifestyle, many of these individuals proved amenable to calls for black separatism and fiscal autonomy. W. D. Fard, a mysterious itinerant peddler, arrived in Detroit in 1930 and began teaching that African Americans were divinely favored by a black God. Far from adhering to strict Islamic law, Fard's eclectic NOI philosophy borrowed from earlier black nationalist movements, the Bible, and his own Afrocentric interpretation of humanity's origins, among other sources. Believed by his followers to be the Messiah who would initiate a racial Armageddon, Fard disappeared under mysterious circumstances in 1934. Elijah Muhammad then assumed leadership of the movement.

Under Muhammad's direction, the NOI accepted Fard as a manifestation of Allah, while also enhancing many of his teachings. Until apocalyptically released from bondage, [Page 333]blacks were counseled to discover their true history, reject their Christian “slave religion” and its implied posture of submissiveness, abide by strict behavioral codes that included bans on tobacco and alcohol, and reinforce patriarchal household relations. Thousands of men embraced Muhammad's message, welcoming the NOI's call for a virile, prideful, and accountable masculinity.

Most active among the lower economic classes, the NOI has historically proselytized to men who are unemployed or unable to provide for their families. By stressing rigid personal morality and self-sufficiency, the movement has sought to reinstate a sense of confident and responsible masculinity. These traits have formed the basis for a disciplined style of manhood deemed capable of furthering the larger causes of black America—a model that paradoxically resembles that of white, middle-class masculinity founded upon work and temperance.

Throughout his forty-year tenure, Elijah Muhammad preached a distinct vision of family life. Claiming that an idealized notion of womanhood was the source of domestic well-being, he encouraged male members to respect and protect their wives and daughters. To restore a sense of female dignity undermined by slavery and oppression, men were prompted to enforce a stringent female code of conduct that emphasized modest behavior and a concentration upon household life. Through such measures, the NOI promoted a masculinity that both reviled liberalizing midcentury gender reforms and embraced a lingering “cult of domesticity” that viewed women as inherently suited to the private world of the home, and men as naturally suited to the public sphere.

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