Xian Incident

Background

After completing military training with the Japanese Army, the Chinese general and politician Chiang Kai-shek (1887–1975) returned to China in 1911 and took part in the revolution against the Manchu dynasty. Chiang was active in attempts to overthrow the government of Yüan Shih-kai from 1913 to 1916, and when the Chinese statesman and revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen established the Guangzhou government in 1917, Chiang served as his military aide. In 1923, Sun sent Chiang to the Soviet Union to study military organization and to seek aid for the Guangzhou government. On Chiang's return he was appointed commandant of the newly established Whampoa Military Academy. He grew even more prominent in China's middle-class revolutionary party, the Kuomintang (KMT), after the death of Sun in 1925. The KMT was established in 1912 and originally called for parliamentary democracy and moderate socialism.

In 1926, Chiang launched the Northern Expedition with the intention of defeating their longtime rival Japan, leading the Nationalist (holding the idea of a cohesive, unified Chinese people and culture primarily under Chinese rule) army into Hankou and Nanjing. Chiang followed Sun's policy of cooperation with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and acceptance of Russian aid until 1927, when he dramatically reversed himself and initiated the long civil war between the KMT and the Communists.

In March 1927, Chiang and his revolutionary army easily took over Shanghai, China's industrial and commercial hub. Chiang's forces, an unconventional alliance of the CCP and the KMT, now controlled most of the country. By the end of the year, Chiang controlled the KMT, and in 1928, he became head of the Nationalist government at Nanjing and general of all Chinese Nationalist forces. After the Shanghai victory, Chiang swiftly moved his troops against the trade unions, purged the Communists from the KMT, banned the CCP, established the Nationalist government, and made himself president of China.

Only Manchuria, ruled by warlord Chang Tso-lin, remained outside Chiang's power. Chang Tso-lin, known as the “Old Marshal,” was assassinated in 1928 by the Japanese, and his son, Chang Xue-liang [Page 1694](later to be known as “Peter Chang”) (1898–2001), took Chang Tso-lin's place as military governor of Manchuria. The younger Chang became known as the “Young Marshal” and was one of the most powerful military figures in China.

As leader of the Manchurian army, Chang realized that even with hundreds of thousands of soldiers under his command his army was still too weak to fight the Japanese alone. In 1928, he decided to submit to the Nationalist government under Chiang's leadership and unite the divided military forces under the command of warlords in different parts of China. Chang supported Chiang against a rebellious northern army from 1929 to 1930 and was made deputy commander in chief of the Chinese armed forces and a member of the central political council.

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