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Gender Stereotypes

Preconceived notions regarding who a leader is and who should be an effective leader often impact the leadership process, perhaps determining who becomes a leader, how the leaders are perceived, and how they are evaluated. The low number of women in leadership and decision-making positions, as compared to the figures for men, have been associated with traditional thinking (United Nations 1999) and presence of gender stereotypes (Bethion Antal and Izraeli 1993; Heilman 2001). With the influx of diversity in the workforce, people in positions of leadership now come from a variety of social and cultural groups. Those who interact with them view these leaders through the filter of their stereotypes, expectations, and implicit theories (Ayman 1993).

It is both reality and stereotype that many women spend much of their time in the role of mother. Here, a young woman with twin babies in Shanghai, China, in May 1996.

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Stephen G.Donaldson; used with permission.

Implicit Theories and Stereotypes

An implicit theory is an unspoken assumption regarding the world and others (Ashmore and del Boca, 1979). An individual's implicit theories affect their expectations and their interpretations of the world around them. Stereotypes are a subset of implicit theories that are used to organize expectations of others (Wegner and Vallacher 1977). Stereotypes are usually overgeneralized attributes that differentiate groups of people. Although stereotypes often have negative connotations, stereotypes can be positive or negative and they may be accurate or inaccurate (Aries 1996; Glick and Fiske 1999).

Stereotypes effect both an individual's perceptions and their subsequent reactions toward others. For example, when an individual first meets another person, the individual assesses the new person—as a means of self-protection—to determine whether the new person should be considered a friend or a foe (Fiske and Ruscher 1993; Henley 1975). Stereotypes allow people to infer quickly, if not always accurately, another person's attributes and whether they should be considered trustworthy (Glick and Fiske 1999). Individuals who respond automatically to stereotypes are not always aware of their action or its cause.

As implicit theories and stereotypes are developed within their social and cultural milieus, individuals vary in the content of their stereotypes and their use (Aries 1996). However, research demonstrates some degree of agreement regarding gender stereotypes and the characteristics and expectations associated with them, especially in the realm of leadership.

Gender Roles, Norms, and Stereotypes

Women have traditionally been stereotyped as more socially sensitive and interpersonally capable than men (Korabik 1999). In various studies, the traditional stereotype of women included attributes such as being less competent and less effective in tasks that are required for jobs outside the home (Glick and Fiske 1999), nurturing, compassionate, considerate, weak, and subservient (Bem 1974), and emotional, subjective, tactful, aware of other's feelings, and having feelings that are easily hurt (Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, and Rosenkrantz 1972). Stereotypes associated with men, on the other hand, typically included traits such as leaders, dominant, aggressive, independent, objective, and competitive (Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, and Rosenkrantz 1972).

These gender stereotypes extend into almost every facet of daily life for both men and women. People interpret communications and speech characteristics through the filter of gender stereotypes (Carli 1990; Hawkins 1988; Kramer 1977; Orcutt and Harvey 1985; Siegler and Siegler 1976; Tannen 1990, 2001). Research has demonstrated that gender stereotypes regarding communication patterns and styles develop early (Andersen 1986; Edelsky 1977; Fillmer and Haswell 1977) and continue on through adulthood (Hawkins 1988; Orcutt and Harvey 1985; Siegler and Siegler 1976). Other aspects of interpersonal interactions are subjected to gender stereotypes. Others also interpret interpersonal persuasion methods or strategies through the lens of their stereotyped expectations (Burgoon, Dillard, and Doran 1983; Carli 1990, 2001; Johnson 1976). In addition, gender stereotypes regarding interpersonal interaction have proven to be relatively stable over time (Fecteau, Jackson, and Dindia 1992; Heilman, Block, Martell, and Simon 1989; Spence and Buckner 1998).

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