Egypt

One cannot consider contemporary Egyptian law a mere instrument of imperialist domination. Although the system was originally the product of legal transplants, it “Egyptianized” itself and has transformed into a full-fledged judicial apparatus and legal order. The Montreux Agreement (1937) abolished consular and mixed courts and made national courts responsible in all cases.

Administrative courts were created in 1946 and a constitutional court in 1969. The government abolished religious courts in 1955 and personal status matters entered the jurisdiction of specialized divisions of ordinary courts. After the Revolution of July 1952 and the establishment of the Republic, the state instituted several new jurisdictions. In the 1970s and 1980s, the revolutionary and socialist regime evolved into an economically liberal one, which explains how the Supreme Constitutional Court ruled that public sector privatization was constitutional under the socialist-oriented constitution.

The Egyptian legislature codified family law at the beginning of the twentieth century, and it remains the only branch of law in which the law applicable depends upon the parties' religious affiliation. Nevertheless, family law has been relatively responsive to some of the changing needs in Egyptian society. The legislature introduced limitations, for instance, for marriage repudiation and polygamy, two sensitive institutions of Islamic law.

In the 1970s and 1980s, codifiers attempted to “Islamicize” Egyptian law, which culminated in the draft codes discussed and prepared within the People's Assembly (but never promulgated) and in an amendment to the constitution in 1980 that made the shari'a the main source of legislation. The Supreme Constitutional Court limited the scope of this provision to conclusive and well-established principles of Islamic law. However, this “implementation of shari'a” remains the main slogan of political opposition and especially for the officially banned but still active Muslim Brotherhood. Litigants referred different issues, such as wearing the veil in public schools, female circumcision, and academic and religious freedom to the judiciary, which issued often nuanced but sometimes infamous rulings.

Special courts continue to have jurisdiction with regard to offenses of a political, military, and moral nature. Military justice is part of the permanent judicial system in the country. These courts do not generally respect fundamental human rights concerning freedom of speech, association, and appeal against judgments. The state used a military court to judge the Islamist militants involved in the assassination of former president Anwar Sadat (1918–1981). The Constitution of 1971 authorizes the president to proclaim a state of emergency. State security courts then examine violations of the emergency law as well as violations of ordinary legislation that the president decides to refer to them. They judge without appeal, after a summary procedure. The president in 2002 annulled the verdicts for debauchery of fifty of the fifty-two supposed gay men in the 2001 “Queen Boat” case, which was first adjudicated before a state security court, leaving the remaining two prosecuted for contempt of religion.

Human rights violations remain a central concern in Egypt. Imperialist domination, class oppression, authoritarian regimes, regional conflicts, conflicting values, sectarian attrition, and economic predicament converged in menacing the rule of law and the good administration of justice. The law itself was sometimes used to negate people's fundamental rights.

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