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Criticism of Journalism
That journalism is important in American life is evident in the large amount of criticism that news media have always received. The country's early newspapers were hotly criticized for the stories they included or ignored, perceived political bias, cronyism with advertisers, and paying too much attention to the social and political elites rather than common people. And those were merely the highlights. Critics have varied from those who feel themselves mistreated (or their views given little attention) to organizations focused on trying to improve journalism. Some criticism has come from within—-as with the relatively recent appointment of newspaper ombudsmen at a handful of major newspapers—-but most comes from outside the journalistic fraternity. The complaints have probably politically balanced out over time—with sharp attacks coming from both the right and the left.
Journalism Standards
By definition, to critique is to speak of mistakes, flawed processes, or unmet expectations. In so doing, one is applying (if only implicitly) specific standards and norms. While American news media (let alone those elsewhere) are not a monolith, they do tend to operate with shared presumptions of purpose and quality. Perhaps as a result of rapid globalization, more journalists throughout the world are adopting a Western conception of the media as a country's “Fourth Estate.” The term is said to have originated with Irish philosopher Edmund Burke when considering journalists of late-eighteenth-century Western Europe to be as important as the nobles, clergy, and commoners (the other three “estates”) that made up a country's parliament. The reason for such privileging of unelected individuals has to do with Burke's recognition that, in all human societies, those who possess “knowledge” have power. Since in a representative political system such as the United States, power is supposed to lie with “the people,” it follows that those people need access to truthful information. Enter the journalists, whose central role is to provide precisely such information (ideally complete, objective, and carefully researched) to all citizens.
In identifying the fundamental freedoms of all Americans, the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution explicitly safeguards press freedom. In addition to striving to fulfill the central role of informing the citizenry, contemporary American journalists also hold that those who wield political and economic power should be accountable for their actions. This function of news media, often called the “watchdog role,” is accomplished, with various degrees of efficacy, largely by investigative journalists. Many critiques of journalism, therefore, speak either of the journalists' failure to provide quality information, or of their failure to keep a check on those in power—or both.
Selective Coverage
Most journalists in the Western world consider the providing of quality information to be their most important responsibility. This agreement, however, does not extend to the question of exactly what constitutes “quality” information, as media practitioners have different journalistic standards and procedures. Predictably this diversity has led to ideological conflict in the media, one issue being the tension between the so-called elitists and populists. The former expect journalists to be highly educated people able to decide which of the plethora of daily events are worth reporting. Furthermore, since issues that have the most impact are often complicated, difficult-to-explain affairs, journalists can't expect their relevant products (such as in-depth newspaper feature stories or television documentaries) to be very popular with average citizens. Indeed, the elitists argue, journalists should not seek popularity to the detriment of providing important information. “Populists,” on the other hand, perceive journalists to be the servants of the people in a more literal sense: whatever information people ask for (or seem to enjoy the most) is what should be provided. And, if that means journalists should spend more time reporting “soft” rather than “hard” news, then so be it. Those agreeing with the elitists bemoan the media's lapse into sensationalism and “infotainment.” Conversely, populist sympathizers might argue that journalists are “losing touch” with common folk, as they become closer to political and business elites.
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- Audience
- Audience Research
- Audience Research Companies
- Circulation, Controlled
- Mass Media, Decline of
- News Audiences, Decline of
- Polls and Public Opinion
- Academic Accreditation
- Academic Associations
- Advocacy Groups
- Archives and Museums
- Criticism of Journalism
- Education, Journalism
- Foundations, Research Centers, and Institutes
- Media Accountability Systems
- News Councils
- Scholarly Journals
- Student Journalism
- African American News Media
- Asian American News Media
- Diversity: Content
- Diversity: Employment
- Diversity: Policy
- Émigré News Media
- Ethnic Minority Networks
- Feminist News Media
- Gay and Lesbian Journalism
- Gay and Lesbian News Media
- Latino News Media
- Native American News Media
- Race and Ethnicity, Coverage of
- Women in Journalism
- Women's Magazines
- Agenda Setting
- Books as Journalism
- Comparative Models of Journalism
- Education, Journalism
- Framing
- Free Expression, History of
- Gatekeeping
- Hard Versus Soft News
- History of Journalism: Before 1861
- History of Journalism: 1861–1930
- History of Journalism: 1930–1995
- History of Journalism: 1995 to Present
- Infotainment
- Internet Impact on Media
- Mass Media, Decline of
- Muckrakers
- New Journalism
- News as Narrative
- News Audiences, Decline of
- Newsroom Culture
- News Values
- Objectivity
- Parody of News
- Satire of News
- Social Movements and Journalism
- Theories of Journalism
- Advertising
- Antitrust
- Circulation, Controlled
- Diversity: Policy
- Employment
- Internet Impact on Media
- Joint Operating Agreements
- Labor Unions
- Marketing
- Media Ownership
- Newspaper Preservation Act
- Access to Media
- Advertorials
- Antitrust
- Bandwagon Journalism
- Bias
- Blacklisting
- Censorship
- Checkbook Journalism
- Copyright
- Credibility
- Deception
- Diversity: Content
- Diversity: Employment
- Embedded Reporters
- Ethics
- First Amendment
- Free Press and Fair Trial
- Indecency and Obscenity
- Infotainment
- Juvenile Offenders, Coverage of
- Libel
- Media Accountability Systems
- Media Literacy
- Military and the Media
- News Syndication
- Objectivity
- Plagiarism
- Press Pools
- Privacy
- Professionalism
- Risk and News
- Secrecy and Leaks
- Sound Bites
- Spin
- Video News Releases
- Violence Against Journalists
- Anchors, Television
- Cartoonists, Political
- Columns and Columnists
- Commentators, Radio
- Commentators, Television
- Editors
- Foreign Correspondents, Electronic
- Foreign Correspondents, Print
- Interviewers
- Investigative Reporters
- Newscasters, Radio
- Photo Editors
- Photojournalists
- Political Reporters
- Producers
- Publishers
- Reporters, Online
- Reporters, Print
- Reporters, Radio
- Reporters, Television
- Satirists, Political
- Sportscasters, Radio
- Sportscasters, Television
- Sportswriters
- War Correspondents
- Access to Media
- Antitrust
- Censorship
- Copyright
- Diversity: Policy
- Federal Communications Commission
- First Amendment
- Freedom of Information Act
- Free Press and Fair Trial
- Gag Orders
- Images, Ownership of
- Indecency and Obscenity
- International and Comparative Journalism Law
- Libel
- Media Accountability Systems
- News Councils
- Newspaper Preservation Act
- Newsroom Culture
- Privacy
- Self-Regulation
- Shield Law
- Sunshine Law
- Supreme Court and Journalism
- Business Magazines
- Celebrity and Fan Magazines
- Newsweekly Magazines
- Photo Magazines
- Quality and Opinion Magazines
- Scholarly Journals
- Trade Magazines
- Women's Magazines
- Distribution, Online
- Documentaries, Motion Picture
- Film in Television News
- Motion Pictures, Journalism in
- Newsreels
- ABC News
- Air America
- Al Arabiya
- Al Jazeera
- Al-Manar
- British Broadcasting Corporation
- Cable News
- CBS News
- Chinese Television
- Deutsche Welle
- Ethnic Minority Networks
- EuroNews
- Fox News
- Mutual Broadcasting System
- National Public Radio
- NBC News
- Public Broadcasting Service
- Star News (Asia)
- Agence France-Presse
- Associated Press
- Audio and Video News Services
- Bloomberg
- Clipping Services
- Digital Media Europe
- Dow Jones
- Feature Syndicates
- Gannett
- Havas
- International News Service
- New China (Xinhua) News Agency
- PanAfrican News Agency
- Photo Agencies
- Reuters
- TASS and Russian News Agencies
- United Press International
- Wolff
- Agriculture Journalism, Electronic
- Agriculture Journalism, Print
- Business Journalism
- Citizen Journalism
- Civic Journalism
- Civil Unrest, Coverage of
- Columns and Columnists
- Comics
- Congress and Journalism
- Crime and the Courts
- Criticism and Critics
- Diversity: Content
- Docudrama
- Documentaries, Motion Picture
- Documentaries, Television
- Editorials
- Education, Coverage of
- Entertainment Journalism
- Environmental Journalism
- Food Journalism
- Globalization, Coverage of
- Government, Federal Coverage of
- Government, State and Local, Coverage of
- Health and Medicine Journalism
- Hoaxes
- Human Interest Journalism
- Immigration, Coverage of
- Innovation Journalism
- International Journalism
- Investigative Journalism
- Labor Journalism
- Letters to the Editor
- Lifestyle Journalism
- Literary Journalism
- Maps in Journalism
- Natural Disasters, Coverage of
- Obituaries
- Op-Ed Page
- Peace Journalism
- Poverty, Coverage of
- Precision Journalism
- Presidential Families, Coverage of
- Presidential Scandals, Coverage of
- Presidents, Coverage of
- Race and Ethnicity, Coverage of
- Religion Journalism
- Science and Technology Journalism
- Sensationalism
- Sports Journalism
- Terrorism, Coverage of
- Travel Journalism
- War and Military Journalism
- Weather Journalism
- Atlanta
- Baltimore
- Boston
- Chicago
- Dallas–Ft. Worth
- Denver
- Houston
- Kansas City
- Los Angeles
- Miami
- Milwaukee
- Minneapolis–St. Paul
- New York
- New York Times, The
- Philadelphia
- Publick Occurrences
- San Francisco
- Stars and Stripes
- St. Louis
- USA Today
- Wall Street Journal, The
- Washington, D.C.
- Africa, North
- Africa, Sub-Saharan
- Agence France-Presse
- Arab Countries
- Asia, Central, South, and East
- Australia
- British Broadcasting Corporation
- British Broadcasting Regulation
- British Commercial News Broadcasting
- British Literary Journalism
- British Magazines
- British New Media
- British Newspapers
- British Press Regulation
- British Tabloid Press
- Canada
- Central America and the Caribbean
- China
- Comparative Models of Journalism
- Development Journalism
- English Roots of the Free Press
- Europe
- France
- Free Flow of Information
- Germany
- Globalization, Coverage of
- Havas
- Hong Kong
- India
- International Herald Tribune
- International Journalism
- Israel
- Japan
- Mexico
- New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO)
- Pacific Area
- PanAfrican News Agency
- Reuters
- Russian Federation
- Scandinavia
- Singapore
- South America
- Star News (Asia)
- TASS and Russian News Agencies
- U.S. International Communication
- Wolff
- Advocacy Newspapers
- Alternative and Underground Newspapers
- Broadsheet Newspapers
- Free Newspapers
- Student Journalism
- Tabloid Newspapers
- Weekly Newspapers
- Blogs and Bloggers
- Chat Rooms
- Classified Advertising
- Computers in Journalism
- Convergence
- Desktop Publishing
- Digital Journalism Tools
- Discussion Boards
- Distribution, Online
- Editing, Online and Digital
- Internet Impact on Media
- News Aggregators
- Podcasting
- Reporters, Online
- Social Network Websites
- Streaming Media
- Academic Associations
- Archives and Museums
- Audience Research Companies
- Consultants, News
- Editors' Organizations
- Electronic Media Organizations
- Foundations, Research Centers, and Institutes
- International Journalism Organizations
- Investigative Journalism Organizations
- Labor Unions
- News Councils
- Photo Agencies
- Publishers' Organizations
- Reporters' Organizations
- Special Interest Journalism Organizations
- U.S. International Communications
- Audio and Video News Services
- Advocacy Groups
- Cartoonists, Political
- Congress and Journalism
- Election Coverage
- Equal Time
- First Amendment
- Freedom of Information Act
- Government, Federal, Coverage of
- Government, State and Local, Coverage, of
- News Conferences
- Political Action Committees
- Political Reporters
- Presidential Families, Coverage of
- Presidential Scandals, Coverage of
- Presidents, Coverage of
- Press and Government Relations
- Press Pools
- Satirists, Political
- Spin
- Supreme Court and Journalism
- Washington, D.C.
- Agenda Setting
- Automation
- Diffusion
- Digital Journalism Tools
- Distribution
- Distribution, Online
- Editing, Newspaper
- Editing, Online and Digital
- Electronic News Gathering
- Framing
- Freelance Writers and Stringers
- Graphics
- Labor Unions
- Layout
- Magazine Design
- News Hole
- News Syndication
- Newspaper Design
- Newsprint
- Printing
- Recording
- Satellite News Gathering
- Sound Bites
- ABC News
- Agriculture Journalism, Electronic
- Air America
- Audio and Video News Services
- British Broadcasting Corporation
- British Broadcasting Regulation
- British Commercial News Broadcasting
- CBS News
- Commentators, Radio
- Community Radio
- Digital Sound
- Electronic Media Organizations
- Equal Time
- Federal Communications Commission
- Foreign Correspondents, Electronic
- Mutual Broadcasting System
- National Public Radio
- NBC News
- Newscasters, Radio
- Pacifica Radio
- Podcasting
- Public Radio Journalism
- Recording
- Reporters, Radio
- Rip-and-Read News
- Shortwave Radio
- Simulcasting
- Sportscasters, Radio
- Streaming Media
- Talk and News Radio
- Automation
- Blogs and Bloggers
- Cables, Undersea
- Cable Television
- Chat Rooms
- Computers in Journalism
- Convergence
- Desktop Publishing
- Digital Journalism Tools
- Digital Photography
- Digital Sound
- Digital Television
- Discussion Boards
- Distribution, Online
- Electronic News Gathering
- Facsimile
- Graphics
- Internet Impact on Media
- News Aggregators
- Newsprint
- Photography
- Podcasting
- Printing
- Recording
- Satellite News Gathering
- Shortwave Radio
- Streaming Media
- Telegraph
- Telephone
- Teletype
- Type and Typography
- Videotex and Teletext
- ABC News
- Agriculture Journalism, Electronic
- Anchors, Television
- British Broadcasting Corporation
- British Broadcasting Regulation
- British Commercial News Broadcasting
- Cable Television
- CBS News
- Commentators, Television
- Digital Television
- Docudrama
- Documentaries, Television
- Electronic Media Organizations
- Electronic Newsgathering
- Equal Time
- Evening News, Television
- Facsimile
- Foreign Correspondents, Electronic
- Fox News
- Morning News
- National Public Radio
- NBC News
- Producers
- Public Broadcasting Service
- Public Television Journalism
- Reporters, Television
- Satellite News Gathering
- Simulcasting
- Sound Bites
- Sportscasters, Television
- Streaming Media
- Tabloid Television
- Television News Magazines
- Video News Release
- Videotex and Teletext
- About the Volume Editor
- Volume Introduction
- Introduction
- Constitutional Amendments
- Antigovernment Issues and National Security
- Clear and Present Danger Speech
- Prior Restraint
- Libel Issues
- Privacy Protection
- Access to Public Records
- Reporter's Privilege to Withhold Information
- Intellectual Property Protection
- Regulating Electronic Media
- Further Readings
- Introduction
- General Professional Associations
- General Broadcast Organizations
- Print Organizations
- Interactive Media Organizations
- News Wire Services
- Further Readings
- Reporting Specializations
- Introduction
- Accreditation Standards in Journalism Education
- Journalism White Papers on Changes in Education and Media
- Schools of Journalism: Values and Curriculum
- Further Readings
- Audience Research
- Introduction
- Public Opinion
- Internet Impact on Media
- Newsroom Diversity
- Journalism Employment/Careers
- Key Trends in Journalism
- Further Readings
- Introduction
- The Pulitzer Prizes
- General Journalism Awards
- Specialized Journalism Awards
- Electronic Journalism Awards
- Photography and Editorial Cartooning Awards
- Introduction
- Afghanistan
- Albania
- Algeria
- Andorra
- Angola
- Antigua And Barbuda
- Argentina
- Armenia
- Australia
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- Azerbaijan
- Bahamas
- Bahrain
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- Barbados
- Belarus
- Belgium
- Belize
- Benin
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- Botswana
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- Bulgaria
- Burkina Faso
- Burundi
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- Canada
- Capeverde
- Central African Republic
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- Colombia
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- Congo, Republic Of
- Costa Rica
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- Rwanda
- Saint Kitts And Nevis
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- Saint Vincent And The Grenadines
- Samoa
- San Marino
- Sao Tome And Principe
- Saudi Arabia
- Senegal
- Serbia And Montenegro
- Seychelles
- Sierra Leone
- Singapore
- Slovakia
- Slovenia
- Solomon Islands
- Somalia
- South Africa
- South Korea
- Spain
- Sri Lanka
- Sudan
- Suriname
- Swaziland
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- Syrian Arab Republic
- Taiwan
- Tajikistan
- Tanzania
- Thailand
- Timor-Leste
- Togo
- Tonga
- Trinidad And Tobago
- Tunisia
- Turkey
- Turkmenistan
- Tuvalu
- Uganda
- Ukraine
- United Arab Emirates
- United Kingdom
- United States Of America
- Uruguay
- Uzbekistan
- Vanuatu
- Venezuela
- Vietnam
- West Bank And Gaza Strip
- Yemen
- Zambia
- Zimbabwe
- Notes to the User
- Acknowledgments
- Section 1. General Reference
- Section 2. History
- Section 3. Technology
- Section 4. Journalism Business and Process
- Section 5. News Categories
- Section 6. Political Communication
- Section 7. Journalists
- Section 8. Regulation, Ethics, and Critique
- Section 9. Audiences
- Section 10. Global and Comparative Journalism
- Section 11. Journalism Periodicals
- Section 12. A Library User's Guide for Journalism and Mass Communication Subjects
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