Secularism

What is Political Secularism?

Broadly speaking, secularism, anywhere in the world, means the advocacy of a separation of organized religion from organized political power (the state) that is inspired by a specific set of values. In this general sense, secularism is a normative doctrine that pretends to be universal, although it is applied in different cultures that are more or less compatible with it. Secularism can be understood in its strict meaning of separateness between political power and religion or, more broadly, as bearing several values such as toleration, equal religious liberty, and freedom of religion. Sometimes these two definitions may be in contradiction, as illustrated in France over the issue of Muslim women wearing the veil. However, its constitutive elements can be differently interpreted, giving rise to multiple forms of secularism.

Secular states are disconnected from religion at three distinct levels: (1) ends, (2) institutions and personnel, and (3) law and public policy. This distinguishes them from theocracies and states that establish single or multiple religions. In a theocracy, a deep connection between state and religion exists at all three levels. A priestly order directly administers the state by reference to what it believes are ends inscribed in divine laws (e.g., the Islamic Republic of Iran as Ayatollah Khomeini aspired to run it). In states with established religions, in which one religion is accepted as the official one, a priestly order does not govern directly, and a large measure of institutional and personnel differentiation exists. This disconnection, at Level 2, also referred to in some contexts as church–state separation, goes hand in hand with an overall ideological connection. Religion and state share common ends. The state is subordinate to religious ends even though it has its own function, power structure, and internal norms. Thus, in states with an established religion, because of this primary connection at Level 1, there is an automatic connection at Level 3. For example, the revenue collected by the state is available for religious purposes.

A secular state is nontheocratic and has no established religion. Disconnection from religion at this level distinguishes secular states from both theocracies and states with established religion. A secular state has its own secular ends. The second-order disconnection, church–state separation, demarcates it only from a theocracy.

Given that ethical reasoning is best when it is contextual and comparative, what are the positive and negative aspects of secular and nonsecular states? Historically, nonsecular states have [Page 2373]recognized a particular version of the religion enunciated by the dominant church as the official religion, compelled individuals to participate in only one church, punished them for failing to profess a particular set of religious beliefs, and levied taxes in support of one particular church. Nonsecular states embody a regime of inequality between religions (e.g., between Christians and Jews) and also among the churches of the same religion. Societies with such states were either wracked by inter-/intrareligious wars or have persecuted minority religious groups. States with substantive establishments have not changed with time: such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Israel. Opponents of theocratic states and of those with an established religion argue that such states perpetuate inter- and intrareligious domination and are incompatible with the values of freedom and equality.

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