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World War I Americanization Programs in California

Beginnings of Immigration to California

California has long been a destination for both American native and foreign immigrants. The state's population base has always had a diverse character, and the tide of new immigrants to the “Golden Mountain” reflected the draw of economic opportunity, and new hopes for prosperity and property ownership. With the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the state of California was born. Several days later, the discovery of gold launched the first phase of immigration. Between 1848 and the end of 1849, the population expanded from 26,000 to approximately 100,000. Gold fever inspired simultaneous immigration of native-born and foreign-born immigrants, and the completion of the transcontinental railroad and the end of the Civil War brought a new wave of newcomers representing every area of the globe.

In the 1870s and 1880s approximately 30,000 people entered the state each decade, and foreign-born immigrants far outnumbered U.S. natives. This pattern would reverse during the depression of the 1890s, with the number of native-born immigrants surpassing the foreign-born. Despite this decline, the population reflected the diversity of immigrants, and included Chinese, Japanese, Irish, Germans, British, French, and Mexicans. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, however, sharply curtailed Chinese immigration, but a growing Japanese population would renew anti-Asian sentiments. Between 1900 and 1910, California would experience a new wave of immigration, as the population expanded by 60 percent, including the growth of the Italian and Mexican populations.

The local economy shaped the boom and bust of immigration patterns. During the high points, California encouraged immigration, but during economic downturns native-born residents raised antiforeign campaigns. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 is an excellent example of the power of native-born reaction to foreign immigration, particularly that of the Chinese. California's history is rife with examples of antiforeign attitudes. New organizations formed to promote “Asiatic exclusion,” and by 1913 these same groups extended similar racists sentiments toward Southern European immigrants. For example, the Asiatic Exclusion League went as far as to define Italians as “semi-Mongolian.” The outbreak of World War I further raised antiforeign feelings across California and the nation.

Rise of United States Immigration Commission

The rise of the Progressive movement coincided with foreign-born immigration. Political leaders, activists, and a variety of organizations seeking to reform the moral, political, and social ills of American society formed this movement. California Progressives were especially keen to reform public education and instruction. The sheer numbers and diversity of the new immigrants posed a serious problem from a language standpoint, but addressing it served the two-prong goal of teaching immigrant parents and children English and simultaneously teaching them American civics, which was designed to instill allegiance to the United States. The Progressive education mission predated the outbreak of World War I, but the war increased support for immigrant education and advanced the rise of national and statewide “Americanization” programs.

In the early 1870s, San Francisco was the most populous city in the state. It also became the focal point of state and national immigration politics. San Francisco's population was extremely diverse as were the foreign languages spoken throughout the city. The introduction of foreign language courses in the public schools system began in 1870 with French and German, but by the end of the decade economic problems diminished support for foreign language instruction. San Francisco had its share of private schools, each catering to different nationalities, over the course of the late 19th century. Immigrant communities, including French, German, and Chinese, overcame the lack of foreign language courses in the public schools by forming private language classes using public school facilities. Native-born and immigrants struggled to maintain their own cultural hegemony through the school system. To make matters worse, the superintendent of public instruction was an elected official, and this office was therefore affected by politics. As a result, immigrants and native-born residents used the vote to promote school curricula. Progressive educators wanted the school system to function “by and for the people,” but they also wanted to take control over the curriculum and introduce Americanization classes, and to eliminate the power of different interest groups.

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