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Rituals

Rituals are often symbolic and are defined as any customary behavior or routine that may vary by location (e.g., manners of greeting), or as prescribed by religious, spiritual, cultural, or political traditions (e.g., rites related to birth or death). Erik Erikson described identity development as occurring along three clusters: societyinward, personoutward, and an interaction between individual and society. Rituals may be analyzed similarly. On a societal level, rituals have the sociological power of making it possible for people to distinguish between groups. On a personal level, rituals determine group affiliation and detail selfidentification. From a developmental perspective, studying engagement with rituals contributes to understanding personal identity development and also illustrates how communities maintain cultural cohesion over time. This entry explores the different forms that rituals may take and discusses mechanisms linking rituals and identity development processes.

Rituals and Ingroup/Outgroup Distinctions

From a sociological perspective, rituals help researchers to distinguish ingroups from outgroups. Early ethnographic research done by Erikson detailed the behaviors and rituals of people native to the United States and differentiated tribes through ritual behavior (e.g., how a particular tribe entered their homes). If a person exhibits familiarity with a ritual characteristic of a particular group, others may identify him or her as a member of the referenced group. If participation in the behavior seems unfamiliar or awkward, group membership may be considered by others as unauthentic. Ritual behavior may demarcate not only major sociological groups (e.g., religious groups, ethnic groups, political factions) but also less structured or more localized social groups (e.g., families, friends and neighborhood groups, office culture). For example, work cultures may define rituals for acknowledging special occasions for employees (e.g., first and last day of employment, birthdays, promotions), and these rituals often are consistent with other aspects of the work environment.

The rituals that distinguish ingroups from outgroups may range in the degree to which they require knowledge or intensity of practice. If rituals require a high degree of technical knowledge and language (e.g., a bar mitzvah or bat mitzvah), participation in them may require more preparation or previous experience. The relatively high levels of knowledge may preclude some people from participating in the ritual. Alternately, other ritual observances may have relatively lower entry points. For example, observance of particular holidays may merely mark national affiliation (e.g., Independence Day). The content and significance of rituals associated with holidays may vary according to local values.

Psychological Meaning of Rituals for the Individual

Whereas rituals are socially defined, the individual often has considerable agency in determining the level of participation. For example, one person may participate in a holiday in a minimal manner, such as recognizing the historical reason for the holiday. Another person may celebrate the holiday more deliberately, perhaps by organizing a holiday parade or commemorative event. The degree to which a person participates may reflect important aspects of the identity process, particularly the identity socialization process (i.e., whether a person has been afforded previous opportunities to participate in such rituals, coupled with how the individual has responded to the opportunities).

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