Dimensions of Cultural Variability

Individualism-Collectivism

Perhaps the single most studied dimension of cultural variability that is used to compare and contrast cultures is individualism-collectivism. Harry Charalambos Triandis maintains that the most relevant feature of individualism is valuing personal independence; this involves putting an emphasis on personal responsibility and freedom of choice, personal autonomy, and achieving self-fulfillment. Individualists strive to maintain distinctive personal attitudes and opinions and prefer self-directed behavior and independence of groups. Individualists tend to see themselves as unique from others. In individualistic cultures, emphasis is placed on individuals’ goals over group goals. In individualistic cultures, social behavior is guided by personal goals, perhaps at the expense of other types of goals. Individualistic cultures stress values that benefit the individual. The self is promoted because each person is viewed as uniquely endowed and possessing distinctive talent and potential. Individuals are encouraged to pursue and develop their abilities and aptitudes. In many individualistic cultures, people are taught to be creative, self-reliant, and assertive. Behaviors associated with individualists include satisfaction with self, satisfaction with freedom, ease of interacting with strangers, direct communication style, lower relational commitment, and a preference to work alone.

The central ingredient of collectivism is the assumption that groups bind and mutually obligate individuals. Triandis argues that collectivism is linked to a sense of duty to group, interdependence with others, harmony, and working with the group. In collectivistic societies, group goals have precedence over individual goals. Collectivistic cultures stress values that serve the ingroup by subordinating personal goals for the sake of preserving the ingroup. Collectivistic societies are characterized by extended primary groups such as the family, neighborhood, or occupational group in which members have diffuse mutual obligations and expectations based on their status or rank. Collectivistic people see themselves as interdependent with others: Responsibility is shared and accountability is collective. A collectivist's values and beliefs are consistent with, and reflect those of, the ingroup. Moreover, a collectivist's association with his or her ingroup may last a lifetime. In many collectivistic cultures, the primary value is harmony with others. Because group harmony is so highly valued, obedience to and compliance with ingroup pressures is routine. One's behavior is role based, and deviations from the prescribed role are discouraged and often negatively sanctioned. In this sense, a person's behavior is guided more by shame than by personal guilt. A collectivist who stands out from the group disrupts the harmony and may be punished. Most collectivistic cultures value social reciprocity, obligation, dependence, and obedience. The primary value stressed by many collectivistic cultures is harmony. Behaviors associated with collectivists include a high need for affiliation, sensitivity to rejection, sensitivity to being embarrassed, ingroup relationship preferences, and an indirect communication style.

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