Empathy

In the broadest sense, empathy refers to the reactions that one person has to the observed experiences of another. Beyond this general definition, however, psychologists have conceived of this phenomenon in a number of more specific ways. Disagreements over the “proper” definition of empathy have been a long-running feature of this field. However, underlying all of these definitional approaches is one core assumption: that empathy in some way involves the transformation of the observed experiences of another person into a response within the self. Thus, empathy is a psychological phenomenon that at least temporarily unites the separate social entities of self and other. Because of this, empathy can affect relationships in a variety of ways. This entry reviews the differing definitions of empathy that have dominated this literature. It also discusses the implications of empathy for relationships.

The most fundamental definitional distinction has been between viewing empathy as an essentially cognitive phenomenon or as a fundamentally emotional one. The cognitive view sees empathy as an intellectual process in which one person attempts to understand the internal state of another person—thoughts, feelings, or intentions. The term perspective taking (or role taking) is often used to describe this process. Some versions of this [Page 516]approach consider perspective taking to be the attempt to infer others' internal states; other versions equate perspective taking only with successful attempts that result in an accurate inference.

Such inferences could be made in several ways. An observer might start with the assumption that a target's reaction in a given situation is probably similar to what the observer's would be in a comparable situation—the observer might then “project” his or her own likely responses to the target. Alternatively, an observer might use other sources of information to make such inferences. The target's words, facial expressions, and body language can all provide information about the target's emotional state. Prior knowledge about the target might also be used to infer a current internal state, and knowledge about groups to which the target belongs can be used to determine the target's likely attitudes or values.

The emotional view of empathy, in contrast, defines empathy as some kind of affective reaction in the observer that results from observing the target. However, no clear consensus exists regarding the precise nature of this emotional response. Some have argued that empathy consists of the observer and target experiencing the same or similar emotions—a phenomenon sometimes known as emotional contagion. Others have argued that empathy occurs when the observer comes to have feelings of sympathy and compassion for the target. Other affective states that have been nominated include empathic anger (when a target has been mistreated), empathic joy (when a target has experienced success), and even “contrast empathy” in which the target's misfortune produces enjoyment in the observer. However, the most common contemporary view is probably that emotional empathy is an affective response to another's experience that is congruent with, but not necessarily identical to, that other's own experience.

In recent years, there has been growing acceptance of the view that empathy can best be considered a multidimensional phenomenon that encompasses both cognitive and affective elements. One such view holds that it is useful to distinguish between empathy-related processes (such as motor mimicry, associative learning, and perspective taking) and empathy-related outcomes, both cognitive (e.g., accurate perceptions) and affective (e.g., feelings of sympathy). Moreover, these cognitive and emotional responses in turn contribute to interpersonal outcomes such as aggression and helping behavior.

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