Adoption

Adoption: Theory and Empirical Examination

Although much has been proposed about the impact of adoption on identity and relationships, both theoretical explication and empirical testing is limited. What is known is that well-designed studies consistently find that families formed through adoption are successful—with high levels of satisfaction reported by adopted persons and by those who adopt them. For example, several studies have found that adopted children (especially those adopted following maltreatment or otherwise compromised early lives) have more behavior problems, especially in adolescence, but others have not found large differences. The common theme in studies of families formed through adoption is that children fare well and that families are cohesive. Researchers know much less about the long-term impact on birth or first families.

Despite positive outcomes, theory predicts that adopted persons face additional challenges to positive identity formation. In psychoanalytic theory, relationships in adoption are seen as holding risk for psychopathology. Freud posited the concept of family romance—the fantasy-based disavowal of one's parents as real parents allowing for safe expression of anger or of ambivalence toward the all-powerful parents. The romance enables children to separate and develop the psychological independence necessary for healthy adulthood. But this fantasy is problematic for adopted youth who must come to an understanding of why they have been separated from their original families—a separation that may be interpreted as rejection.

Developmental psychology, especially Erik Erikson's model of human development, holds that identity development and consolidation is a normative developmental step. Identity confusion may result from the lack of information about important aspects of self and history. Such informational lack is common in many adoptions.

Loss and grief theory (Bowlby) informs adoption theory as well. The breach of attachment and the lack of resolution of loss are held to complicate relationships. The loss for the birthmother has been particularly complex due to the stigma and secrecy surrounding adoption historically. For those adopting, the loss of the imagined or desired child that may occur when parents adopt rather than procreate is another complication, particularly when due to infertility. For adopted persons, particularly those with no connection to their original families, loss may be retrospective—realized and understood at relatively late developmental stages. Loss theory holds all are constrained by the ambiguity of loss and the dearth of social mechanisms that acknowledge and support grieving this type of loss. Unresolved loss can interfere with positive adoptive adjustment as well as impair the birthmother's capacity for psychologically healthy relationships.

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