Migration

Migration is the movement of people from one geographic location to another. Migration may result from many different causes. In some cases, economic opportunities may motivate individuals to move. Algerian guest workers in France are an example of this situation. War and political conflict may also instigate large-scale movements of people. For instance, violence emerging from internal political conflicts in Rwanda and Sudan has created mass migrations during recent years. Political and/or religious oppression has also created the context for migrations. Early migrants to the United States are a historical example of this situation, and refugees from Cuba provide an example of ongoing developments. Environmental disasters, such as drought, flooding, hurricanes, and nuclear disasters, may also generate waves of migration. Finally, in some cases, economic development may force migration. For example, the construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China has forced the removal of more than 1 million people to make space for a large reservoir behind the dam. These diverse factors can be divided into two general categories: push factors and pull factors. Push factors are variables that cause people to migrate because the situation in their current location is unsatisfactory, inadequate, or dangerous. Pull factors are variables that attract people from other locations because they offer positive opportunities or amenities.

Migration can also be categorized in other ways to better describe the characteristics of specific geographic movements. Most notably, a migratory movement may be classified as international voluntary[Page 302] migration, international forced migration, internal voluntary migration, or internal forced migration. International voluntary migration involves the movement of individuals across international borders. Examples of this type of migration include the movement of Europeans to the United States in the late 19th century and the movement of migrant laborers during more recent times. Examples of international forced migration include the African slave trade of the past, the relocation of English prisoners onto the continent of Australia, and the movement of Jews out of Nazi Germany. Internal voluntary migration involves movements that remain within national boundaries. In the United States, examples of this include events such as the Gold Rush, the movement to the suburbs after World War II, and responses to deindustrialization in the Midwest. Examples of internal forced migration include the placement of Native Americans on Indian reservations (the so-called Trail of Tears) and the relocation of Japanese Americans in internment camps during World War II.

Importantly, each type of migration operates at a different geographic scale and presents a distinct set of opportunities and challenges. With regard to scale, migration may affect the urban ecology of localities (e.g., suburbanization, white flight), the characteristics of different regions within a country (e.g., the movement away from the Rustbelt and toward the Sunbelt in response to economic opportunity and climate), or the overall composition of a country (e.g., the declining importance of U.S. immigration emanating from Europe in comparison with Latin America and Asia). Depending on the topic under consideration, geographers must be aware of the complexities produced by different geographic scales.

Similarly, migration produces opportunities and challenges. Within the economic realm, migration may boost economic productivity by using labor in a more efficient manner. On the other hand, this migration may engender costs that must be paid for by the preexisting local population. In contrast to common representations, migration produces a series of costs and benefits. These costs and benefits are unequally distributed throughout a society. Whereas some economic sectors may benefit greatly from these movements (e.g., agriculture), others may experience adverse effects. Some of these effects are direct, whereas others are more indirect. For example, migration into a region often produces a need for greater infrastructure. The incoming population will require schools, fire departments, housing, transportation facilities, and retail establishments. Some of these requirements benefit localities (e.g., in the marketplace), whereas others require additional expenditures (e.g., transportation). In addition to these complexities, migration may have a substantial impact on cultural identity. This is reflected in the changing nature of language and the nature of acceptable practices in public places. Due to the potential changes it might produce, international migration often is viewed with a great degree of ambivalence and antipathy. These dynamics are further complicated by the fact that migrants often assimilate in their new surroundings.

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