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Cognitive Models of Space

Cognitive models of space refer to the different mechanisms by which humans perceive and understand the components of geographic space. Cognition is the range of intellectual activities spanning from awareness, through perception and reasoning, and finally to judgment. Spatial cognition refers to the mental process of knowing that events and processes occur in, are influenced by, and influence other events and processes in geographic space.

Spatial Awareness and Thinking

Spatial awareness is based on a simple principle of being cognizant that human and natural events and activities occur in geographic space. Human systems are composed of human activities such as land conversion, movement of people, road construction, and energy consumption. As a complement to human systems, physical systems are based on the natural environment such as storm events, volcanoes, plant and animal life, and river systems. We use location as the organizing principle to identify where on the surface of the earth these activities occur.

The process of spatial thinking involves a continuum from spatial awareness, through spatial perception and spatial reasoning, and finally to spatial judgment. Spatial awareness is based on a simple principle of being cognizant that human and natural events and activities occur in geographic space. Spatial perception implies a personal capacity to recognize and interpret the interactions of spatial events and processes. Spatial reasoning involves logical and analytical thought to make a decision concerning spatial events, processes, and their interaction. Finally, spatial judgment is the mental ability to perceive and distinguish spatial relationships and the ability to assess alternative situations.

A well-documented geographic example that had unintended environmental consequences is the location of industrial activities in the Ohio and Pennsylvania region. The decision to locate industries that emit nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide gases (NOx), as well as a group of chemical compounds of sulfur and oxygen (mostly sulfur dioxide) gases (SOx), into the atmosphere in the Ohio and Pennsylvania region has degraded water quality in New England lakes via acid rain deposition. The decision makers at the time these industries were built did not understand the spatial processes associated with emissions and atmospheric processes.

Maps as Models

The paper-based map (and now the digital version of it) has been the primary mechanism for conceptualizing, defining, and understanding geographic space. A map is a graphical representation of geographic space where location and attribute (where something is located and what it is) are combined into a single visual product. The relative location (where it is located in conjunction with other elements of the map) and the absolute location (the precise coordinate information) are provided along with the attribute information (a solid blue region conveying that it is a lake) as a graphic image. Maps are useful for conveying specific messages about a topic (e.g., that the distribution of chemical waste sites is concentrated in one geographic region) and useful for analyzing geographic phenomena (e.g., visualizing stream erosion).

Mental maps are internalized images of geographic space. Although many people are very talented at viewing geographic space in a manner similar to viewing paper maps, other people are not. Mental maps do not have the elements and metrics (e.g., ability to measure distances) associated with them as do their physical counterparts.

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