After-School Programs

After-school programs (ASPs) are those programs available to children 6 to 18 years of age that are characterized by structure, adult supervision, and an emphasis on skill building. ASPs tend to be voluntary, hold regular and scheduled meetings, and emphasize developmentally based expectations and rules for the participants. In most cases, ASPs are organized around developing particular skills and achieving goals. The challenge and complexity of the program activities increase with the participants' developing abilities.

The range of ASPs available to children and adolescents in the United States is substantial. In general, ASPs can be viewed at one of three levels: (1) nationally sponsored youth organizations and federally funded programs (e.g., Boys and Girls Clubs of America, YMCA, YWCA, 21st-Century Community Learning Centers, 4-H, Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts of America, Camp Fire); (2) community, school, and local sponsorship, including grassroots youth developmental organizations, faith-based youth organizations, and public sector institutions (e.g., school-sponsored extracurricular activities, museums, libraries, youth centers, youth sports organizations, and community service programs); and (3) individual activities or types of activities (e.g., sports, music, hobby clubs, social clubs, religious and service activities), which can be differentiated on the basis of specific goals, atmosphere, and content.

Because school-age children in the United States and other Western nations spend about half of their waking hours in discretionary activities outside of school, there has been a growing interest in understanding how ASP participation may influence the development of young people. Indeed, several reports have been published that underscore the critical role of after-school time for young people (e.g., the[Page 47] Packard Foundation's 1999 report, “When School Is Out”; the National Research Council's 2002 report, “Community Programs to Promote Youth Development”; the Public/Private Ventures 2002 report, “Multiple Choices After School”; the 2003 National Research Council's report, “Working Families and Growing Kids: Caring for Children and Adolescents”; the 2003 Nellie Mae Foundation report, “Critical Hours”; and the forthcoming volume, “Organized Activities as Contexts of Development”). The opportunities and risks associated with after-school time are detailed in these reports.

In the light of a rapid historical increase in maternal employment, perhaps the most basic opportunity provided by ASPs is the provision of a safe and supervised context for young people while their parents are working. However, such programs are frequently implemented with a range of additional goals indicating the increased interest in viewing after-school time as an opportunity for young people to develop competencies that complement learning experiences in the school classroom. These include (1) reducing the risks associated with unsupervised and unstructured leisure time; (2) promoting social-emotional competence, school attachment, civic engagement, and educational attainment; (3) addressing racial or ethnic and income disparity in school achievement and social adjustment; and (4) preparing young people for the transition to adulthood, higher education, and employment. In other words, ASPs allow young people to capitalize on their personal interests, abilities, and environmental resources to both reduce risks for developing problem behaviors and build competencies that increase the likelihood for healthy adjustment in the future.

The foregoing discussion implies that participation in organized after-school programs may promote positive development. But, does the available research support this assertion? The next section summarizes findings from several studies that have examined the link between ASP participation and adjustment in young people. The focus is on two types of ASPs: formal programs for school-age children, and extracurricular activities and after-school community programs for adolescents.

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