Technology

Technology can be understood in the simplest terms as techniques for making and doing things. Originally derived from the Greek technos for art or craft and logos for speech or word, technology referred to the discourse on all arts. It was not until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe that technology came to be understood as the techniques by which humans strive to change or control their environment. A key differentiation to highlight is that between technology and science. Technology has its origins in the earliest efforts of humans to develop tools that were used systematically in daily practice. These efforts were not always pursued based on a clear knowledge of physical or chemical properties and expected outcomes, thus technology must be seen as separate from, and primary to, the rationalistic practices of modern science. Technology analysts argue that many techniques in the past lasted much longer than would be justified by rationalism, such as the practice of alchemy, but technologies can become incorporated into social practices in ways that are difficult to change. Today, as a result, technology is often closely associated with the progress of scientific research; however, technology itself and technological inquiry long predate current scientific practice.

The history of technology thus involves discussions of thousands of years of innovations from the periods prior to the invention of the wheel to the development of tools utilized for almost instantaneous communication across vast distances and the mapping of the human genome. For these purposes, however, the discussion will highlight some key technologies in history, with a focus on those technologies that have had substantial effects on social and political organization. This will provide the context for a discussion of more recent advances in technology to emphasize current innovations that have important implications for governance.