Systems Theory

A system is a complex arrangement of elements related to a whole. The body, for example, is a whole that is comprised of a complex of interacting cells, organs, limbs, and so on. The study of society as a social system has a long history in the social sciences. The conceptual origins of the approach are generally traced to the work of Herbert Spencer and Émile Durkheim in particular.

Herbert Spencer, influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, argued for a unitary form of the social system. In his approach, the system of society was constantly evolving into an even more complex state of perfection. However, alternative forms of social systems theory argue for a very different view of social evolution. In these perspectives, society is not evolving toward some perfect state; rather, it is reaching a state of increasing complexity. This was called structural differentiation.

Structural differentiation refers to the adaptation of the organism or society to its environment through changes in its internal complexity. An important aspect of social differentiation is deciding just how adaptation occurs. Put simply, the question is, How do changes in the structure of the system relate to the processes of the system?

There are several solutions to this problem. On the one hand, society can be viewed as a total organism that is sustained by the various processes that comprise it. An alternative view argues that stabilizations in social systems occur not because of any rational plan of overall survival, but simply because they happen to work. These differing views of society have been labeled structural functionalist and functional structuralist, respectively. Other forms of systems theory include the actor systems approach and the sociocybernetic perspective.

Systems theory is relevant to governance because it is involved in analyzing how society adapts to its environment through adjustments in its structure. The problem of governance from this perspective becomes the problem of reaching an adequate understanding of [Page 950]the complex processes of social evolution. If social systems theory were followed, governance would become preoccupied with eliminating inadequate social control and reducing deviance. The problem of steering becomes the problem of recognizing that society is multicentered and formed on the basis of a multiplicity of coevolving systems. Systems theory carefully outlines that there are very real limits to our ability to steer society. On the other hand, because society is so complex, the social scientist can, nonetheless, have an appreciation of the large range of adaptive possibilities for social systems.