Generalized Exchange

Generalized exchange is a type of social exchange system in which the rewards that an individual receives from others do not depend on the resources provided by that individual. The exchange can occur between persons, organizations, countries, or other social groups. Participants in generalized exchange systems are not in a position to make individual rewards conditional on giving behavior. An individual may give goods or services to one or more others, but the rewards that the individual receives may or may not come from the same others. Examples of such systems include helping a stranded motorist (who may, in turn, help someone else in the future), donating to a public good such as a community park, or passing news to one or more others through some form of communication. In each of these examples, goods or services are exchanged indirectly between at least three or more participants.

The earliest research on generalized exchange is primarily based in anthropology and sociology. One of the first empirical examples of generalized exchange is Bronislaw Malinowski's 1922 study of the Kula Ring Exchange among the Trobriand Islanders of New Guinea in the southwest Pacific. Malinowski found that handmade necklaces and bracelets were traded in opposite directions among the various islands in the region. Thus, these exchanges had ceremonial and symbolic significance for the community even if there were no direct economic benefits to the [Page 339]participants. This type of generalized exchange that links individuals indirectly to one another is also called network-generalized or chain-generalized exchange. In addition, this form of generalized exchange is sometimes referred to as a gift economy. However, generalized exchange systems do not have explicit reciprocity between participants (as some gift economies do). The indirect nature of generalized exchange distinguishes it from similar forms of exchange such as reciprocal social exchange.

Another major form of generalized exchange deals with participants who choose to contribute to a public good or not. In this form of generalized exchange, individuals provide resources to the public good, and any value comes from the collective good. Thus, individuals benefit indirectly from one another even though goods or services are given to a central location. This type of generalized exchange is also called group-focused or group-generalized exchange. Because benefits come from a public good, this type of generalized exchange is often synonymous with the problem of collective action.

In all forms of generalized exchange, individuals can potentially receive benefits without ever contributing anything (see the Free Riding entry). Thus, generalized exchange systems contain inherent social dilemmas. In network or chain-generalized exchange, free riding occurs when individuals receive goods or services, but fail to give anything to others. In group-generalized exchange, free riding occurs when individuals receive benefits from the public good without contributing to it. Much of the theory and research in generalized exchange systems deals with overcoming these social dilemmas for the benefit of the community.

With particular attention to issues of policy and governance, research in generalized political exchange (GPE) extends some of the principal ideas of generalized exchange to explain outcomes in the political economy. In this view, exchange becomes generalized when expectations about the effects of behavior persist over time and with different exchange partners. This perspective maps the socio-anthropological concept of generalized exchange onto the larger industrial, organizational, and national levels in an effort to understand policy development and societal self-regulation and governance.

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