Democratic Theory

Classical Democracy: Greece

The meaning of the ancient Greek word demokratia was somewhat ambiguous. Literally, it meant “people-power” or “people-rule”—but it was not entirely clear whether “people” meant only qualified citizens, or all persons (the masses). The Greek word demos could mean either.

By the time of Aristotle (fourth century BCE), there were hundreds of Greek democracies. Greece was not a single political entity but, rather, a collection of some 1,500 separate poleis or city-states. Not all city-states were democracies; some were oligarchies—where power was concentrated in the hands of the few richest citizens—whereas others were monarchies (classified as “tyrannies” if the sole ruler had taken power by force rather than inheritance). Of the democracies, the oldest, most stable, and most notable was found in Athens.

The origin of the Athenian democracy can be traced back to Solon, around 600 BCE. Although he was not a democrat, Solon's constitutional reform package laid the basis upon which democracy was pioneered one hundred years later by the progressive aristocrat Cleisthenes. Under this political system, Athens successfully resisted the Persian attacks of 490 and 480 through 479 BCE, most notably at the battles of Marathon and Salamis. Those successes in turn encouraged the poorest Athenians to demand a greater say in the running of their city, and in the late 460s BCE, Ephialtes and Pericles engineered a political shift that balanced power among economic classes. This democratic Athens laid the foundations of Western rational and critical thought.

Athenian democracy was not, however, universally inclusive. Slaves, foreigners, and women were barred from participation. Political power lay in the assembly, [Page 208]to which all male, freeborn citizens belonged. The assembly made all major decisions and legislation. Rational, dispassionate thought did not always prevail, however; in many instances, the assembly would be dominated by a charismatic individual whose influence derived from his oratorical prowess or force of personality rather than his talent for governing. Democratic governments, in other words, were quite capable of making foolish and ill-conceived decisions. One theory speculates that the word demokratia was coined by the enemies of democracy—members of the aristocratic elite who did not want to be outvoted by commoners.

One interesting and distinctively Athenian democratic practice that generated particular criticism was the practice of ostracism. This was a kind of reverse election to decide which leading politician should be exiled for ten years. At least 6,000 citizens had to “vote” for an ostracism to be valid, and all the major politicians risked being “fired” in this arbitrary and unceremonious way. For nearly one hundred years, ostracism served the purpose of containing serious civil unrest. At the end of the fifth century, ostracism was replaced by a legal procedure administered by the jurors of the people's courts.

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