Collective Action

Collective action occurs when a number of people work together to achieve some common objective. However, it has long been recognized that individuals will often fail to work together to achieve some group goal or common good. Why? While each individual in any given group may share common interests with every other member, each also has conflicting interests. If taking part in a collective action is costly, then each person would sooner not have to take part. If each believes that the collective act will occur without their individual contribution, then they may try to free ride. David Hume pointed out the problem in 1772, [Page 109]when he said that although two neighbors may agree to drain a common meadow, to have a thousand neighbors agree on such a project becomes too complex a matter to execute.

The problems of collective action were popularized by Mancur Olson, who wrote more pithily in 1965 that coercion or some other device must be present in order for a group of individuals to act in common interest. Olson suggested that collective action problems were solved in large groups by the use of selective incentives. These selective incentives might be extra rewards contingent upon taking part in the action or penalties imposed on those who do not. However, in order for positive selective incentives to work, individuals who take part in collective action must be identified; and for negative selective incentives, those who do not take part must be identified. Either way, a good deal of organization is required.

One aspect of the collective action problem is that posed by collective or public goods. A collective good is one from which it is economically infeasible to exclude people from using. Hence, if a collective good—such as collective wage bargaining for an industry—is provided by an organization such as a trade union, then the fruits of that bargaining will be enjoyed by all workers, not only the trade unionists. Other workers in the industry who gain the wage increases and better working conditions provided by that bargaining will not have to pay the union dues and will free ride upon the activities of the union. In order to encourage workers to join unions, most also provide a whole host of private excludable services, such as legal advice and help during individual disputes with employers, pension schemes, holiday deals, and other such activities. Of course, setting up a union in the first place is also a collective act, and Olson suggests that setting up such organizations requires the activities of entrepreneurs who also see private benefits (such as paid employment or a political career) from forming the union in the first place. Though, of course, altruistic individuals may also play a part in collective action.

Collective action problems have often been represented by simple game theory. The simple, one-shot prisoner's dilemma game represents a series of more complex situations, where individual rational action leads to a suboptimal outcome. It would be in the interests of both players to cooperate, but they end up not cooperating because they can see the advantages of free riding and fear the dangers of being taken for a ride. It is well known among game theorists that once the two-person game is repeated over and again, there is a multiplicity of stable equilibriums, some of which involve cooperation and some that do not. If the game is played by more than two people and network affects are allowed (that is players can see how others are playing with third parties), then we should expect both cooperation and free riding. Thus, game theory tells us that collective action is indeed a problem. People do not automatically work together to promote their collective interests, but neither is it impossible. Indeed, depending on the conditions, we should expect varying levels of collective action. In other words, there is not a single collective action problem, but a host of collective action problems that share common features. Therefore, as one would expect, there are numerous ways in which people learn to overcome the particular collective action problems they face in order to work together. The tedium of organizing a school fete is not the same as the dangers inherent in taking part in collective protest or revolution, but both are collective acts subject to free riding. We shall briefly describe the types of demand-side problems that arise in collective action and the sorts of supply-side solutions that are adopted to overcome them. It will be seen that both the problems and solutions are interlinked and interrelated.

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