Republics

Ancient Republics

Most early or classical republics were small and characterized by homogenous populations and were democratic but not egalitarian in nature. Early philosophers such as Aristotle, who first fully articulated republican theory in his Politics, acknowledged the important security function of republics although he felt they should go beyond this function. Aristotle also noted that politics should be a primary function elevated above commerce. Examples of early republics included the polis or city-states of ancient Greece, such as Athens and Sparta, as well as the ancient Roman Republic. Rome began as a monarchy, but it became a republic around the year 509 BCE. The Greek city-states featured a direct democracy, while Rome featured a mixed three-branch form of government.

Aristotle also noted the republic's importance in preserving a society's common virtue and the good life, to which all citizens of the republic were expected to subscribe. He believed that man was a political animal by nature, a belief that placed emphasis on public over private affairs. Although individual household affairs were private matters, the promotion of the public consensus of virtue, morality, and the proper lifestyle best suited to obtain these ideals governed an individual's public life. Public life included their economic participation, religious practices, and artistic expressions. Education was emphasized as the key to raising good republican citizens.

The small size of the Greek city-states and the need to maintain control in the face of ever-present outside challenges meant that subscription to public virtues was vital to the republic's survival. For example, in the Greek city-state of Sparta, boys were separated from their mothers and raised as loyal soldiers, with the mother expected to welcome such individual sacrifice for the public good. Sparta also practiced infanticide, killing those infants determined too weak or unfit to fulfill their republican duties, and did not allow citizens to engage in commerce or contact with the outside world. Commerce was viewed as another potential threat as it often engendered wealth inequities and allowed citizen exposure to outside thoughts and influences. Those citizens who questioned public values, such as the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, often faced exile or death. The Roman Empire faced the challenge of maintaining its republican nature in the face of expansion and absorption of different peoples and territories. One solution was to offer partial citizenship to many of its new inhabitants.

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