Symbol

Abstractly, symbol is understood as a representation of a thing, concept, or quality. Typical symbols might be drawings, shapes, or any kind of object that represents an idea. Many symbols can be pictorially represented, though not all symbols are visual in nature. Human society is full of symbols and symbolic systems that help us to make sense of our experiences. Symbols are purveyors of meaning. While symbols are not necessarily religious, some scholars have claimed that religions are particularly effective at marshalling symbolic codes to grapple with complex subjects, such as the meaning of life, death, suffering, love, and forgiveness. Examples of religious symbols might include the Christian cross, the Jewish Star of David, or the Muslim crescent moon and star. These symbols are recognized by people all over the world as referring to religious traditions that carry great meaning and cultural significance. Numerous secular symbols are also internationally recognizable. The American Statue of Liberty and the Soviet Communist Party's hammer and sickle convey myriad ideas, and not just for Americans or those who lived in the Soviet Union. All these symbols—religious and secular—represent larger ideas or even systems of ideas that are laden with meaning.

Scholars working in different fields have typically analyzed symbols within the context of their discipline's unique theoretical and methodological frameworks. Thus, scholars working within the fields of structural linguistics, cultural anthropology, and symbolic interactionism would not be expected to approach the study of symbols in precisely the same way. There are, however, certain basic characteristics of symbols that are commonly accepted. To illustrate the core features and functions of symbols, it is helpful to consider how symbols are different from other conveyors of meaning, such as signs.

Humans constantly interact with both signs and symbols, but the former do not embody meaning to the same degree as the latter. Consider a simple mathematical formula such as that used to determine the perimeter of a rectangle. If

we know that P stands for perimeter, L for length, and W for width. The letters in this formula act as signs because there is a one-to-one correspondence in meaning. We do not interpret P in this formula as standing for a broad array of social meanings. Signs convey what the sociologist Wendy Griswold calls “simple meaning” because they have a single [Page 1247]referent, and they work through denotation, rather than connotation. According to Griswold, symbols, in contrast, connote, suggest, or imply a range of complex meanings that often evoke powerful emotions.

Another way of thinking about the difference between signs and symbols is to consider what people do when the telephone rings. We generally do not stop and inquire as to what the sound of a ringing telephone might mean. Rather, we take it as a simple cue, or sign, that someone is trying to contact us by telephone. Joel Charon explains our reaction to the telephone by noting that signs are usually distinguished from symbols in that humans do not give substantial meaning to signs or reflect on them but instead habitually respond to them. If we hear the telephone ring, we habitually answer it. When driving automobiles, people habitually stop at red lights because the red light conveys a simple meaning, “stop,” that is not open to broad interpretation. According to Leslie White, another distinction between signs and symbols is the fact that symbolic exchange, or the intersubjective sharing of symbolic meaning, is a human activity. Other animals understand signs, but they are unable to grasp the complex meanings generated through symbolism. According to White, a dog may comprehend basic verbal commands, such as “roll over,” but no nonhuman animal can be brought to any comprehension of “holy water.”

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