Jihad

Jihad in contemporary usage is a contested term, often translated in quite different ways as either an Islamic “holy war” conducted against any “infidel” broadly conceived of as a “non-Muslim,” or as a peaceful striving against the self as a form of spiritual reformation toward personal and communal peace in opposition to more bellicose motives. Themes of self-sacrifice, or martyrdom in the path of God, are often associated with these interpretations. [Page 633]These interpretations are narrow dimensions of the full etymological and historical signification of the word, derived from the Arabic trilateral root j-h-d, signifying a striving toward a specific objective. The semantic field of the root indicates its broader usages within Arabic social, political, and legal discourse. Terms such as ijtihād (the work of scholars and independent jurists for solutions to legal problems) and jahd (strain, endeavor, attempt) suggest that popular conceptualizations of jihad as either a political or a spiritual enterprise are artificial binaries that obscure the historical formations of the concept as an instrument of legal thought, social doctrine, and political duty. As a legal concept, jihad is drawn from Islamic textual authorities such as the Qur'an, the Hadith, and the Sunna (the sayings and actions of Prophet Muhammad) by scholars, commentators, and jurisprudents to form regulations and strategies for four types of sociopolitical activity, often related to warfare: (1) the expansion of territory, (2) the consolidation of hegemony, (3) the protection of property, (4) and the sustenance of the community. Prior to the revelation of the Qur'an beginning in 610 CE, jihad does not appear to have had any specific belligerent meanings, and of the 36 relevant Qur'anic references to the term, less than one third have any particular reference to warfare. The most cited of these, in both historical and contemporary contexts, is the “Verse of the Sword,” from the fifth aya (verse) of the ninth sura (al-Tawbah, Repentance). Verses discussing warfare, such as the “Verse of the Sword,” required substantial textual interpretation to be formed as authoritative legal doctrine.

The Qur'anic conceptualization of jihad constructs a complex tension between violent exercises against a foe and spiritual exercises focused on the self, all of which are directed for the sake of God toward God's cause. It is an incumbent duty that the struggle (jihad) of the believer must always be in alignment with the will of God whether in combat or in spiritual matters. This jihad occurs as both a gift of the believer to God—a freely given self to God's cause—and a form of commercial transaction between the believer and God. Prior to any specifically belligerent understandings, jihad, as a struggle, is a gift performed for God that generates a particular recompense available to all believing Muslims insofar as the jihad is appropriately practiced.

In the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad, following early persecutions, there were several open conflicts and battles waged between the emerging Muslim community and local tribes of pagan Arabs, Jews, and Christians. Though these battles were often minor skirmishes and raids, major engagements, such as those of Badr (624 CE), Uhud (625 CE), Khandaq (627 CE), Mecca (630 CE), and Hunayn (630 CE), indicated the emergence of combat as a legitimate behavior for adherents of the faith. Sections of the Qur'an such as those found within the 2nd (al-Baqarah), 8th (al-Anfal), 9th (al-Tawbah), and 22nd (al-Hajj) suras discuss the legitimacy of killing those who present a threat to the believing community.

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