Dharma, Karma, and Samsara

The notions of dharma, karma, and samsara constitute the conceptual space within which an orthodox Hindu mindful of the classical Brahmanical tradition lives out his or her adult life. Dharma is the expression in the affairs of human beings of cosmic harmony and stability (rita). Literally, it means that which maintains, sustains, and supports. It includes the ideas of natural law, moral righteousness, and religion as these terms are generally understood. Concretely, dharma refers to the complex of duties that a person should discharge in the course of everyday life. While certain duties such as truthfulness are binding universally (sādhāaran dharma), most are context sensitive, varying according to the actor's social status (varna, jati, or caste) and the stage of life (student, householder, retiree, or renouncer) (varna-āshrama dharma).

The sources of dharma are as follows: (a) a timeless morality received through “internal” revelation (shruti, that which has been heard from the seers, notably the Veda), (b) time-honored textual and oral traditions (smriti), and (c) good customs (sadāchār) derived from the lives of exemplars. Moral preceptors themselves, like Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948), have often invoked the ultimate authority of the conscience or “inner voice” (ātmanah tushti).

Dharma, then, is the foundation on which the moral agent constructs his or her social life, in which he or she sows the seeds of action (karma). Karma is invariably goal directed and value oriented, goals and values being ideally inseparable. In its most general expression, karma is dharmic action. Concretely, it refers to ritual performances, whether life cycle rites (karma-kanda) or devotional performances (such as pujas and pilgrimages). Besides, there are “secular” activities, most notably the rational pursuit of economic and political ends (artha) and aesthetic and sensual enjoyment (kama). The pursuit of artha and kama must take place within the framework of dharma, establishing a hierarchy of goals and values (purushārtha).

All purposeful action is bound to bear fruit (karma-phala), and it is the fate of the actor to enjoy or suffer the same, for suffering (dukha) follows evil action just as surely as satisfaction (ānanda) follows good actions. Karma, thus, has the double connotation of practical action as well as eschatology or self-constructed fate. Karmic action usually comes in three forms, namely, (1) mental acts (e.g., compassion, forgiveness, greed, anger), (2) speech acts (e.g., praise, abuse), and (3) physical or bodily acts (e.g., exclusion from personal physical contact).

The fruits of individual karmic actions are rarely, if ever, exhausted in a single lifetime; they accumulate (sanchit karma). One of the persistent problems in this context is whether the load of karma may be lightened by transferring some of it to another person through ritual procedures. At the time of death, the body perishes, but the residue of the fruits of karma necessitates reincarnation of the soul in another corporeal body. This “wandering” of the soul from body to body is called samsara. Just as the notion of social action (karma) cannot be separated from its moral foundation (dharma), it can also not be detached from its consequences, resulting in samsaric bondage. Traditionally, the ultimate goal of every moral agent should be to obtain release (mukti) from the cycle of birth-death-rebirth, or the transmigration of souls.

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