Anti-Semitism

Anti-Semitism is the negative perception of Jews, manifestations of which range from verbally [Page 46]expressed antipathy to physical violence toward Jewish individuals, their properties, institutions, communities, and the state of Israel. Expressions of anti-Semitism date back to ancient times and have been evolving ever since, having gone through periods of appeasement and escalation. Prejudice toward Jews can be rooted in a religious, ethnic, cultural, economic, or political background, depending on particular historical situations and social contexts. In the contemporary world, not only do all of these factors remain valid but anti-Semitic sentiment also has been altered by the processes of globalization and the globalization backlash. Therefore, in the 21st century, anti-Semitism constitutes a highly complex phenomenon and continues to be an influential ideology and a challenging social issue.

Throughout most of its existence, anti-Semitism has been based primarily on religious grounds. In pre-Christian times, most Jews refused to accept the dominant pagan beliefs and kept to their monotheistic religion, which made them unpopular. They were frequently treated as scapegoats, blamed for real and imagined hardships. Aversion to Jews resulted in their expulsion from their traditional homeland of Jerusalem, which began a long history of Jewish diasporas. With the spread of Christianity, Jews remained out of favor as differences between them and Christians became more and more manifest. Hostility toward Jews was principally stirred by their being held responsible for the crucifixion of Christ. From the fourth century, when Christianity was established as the official religion of the Roman Empire, their legal position was disadvantageous, especially in places where laws regulating Christian-Jewish relations were passed. In the Middle Ages, the so-called Blood Libel was added to the allegations against Jews. (It claimed that followers of Judaism murdered Christian children to procure human blood for the preparation of matzo bread.) Prejudice against and fear of Jews led to numerous pogroms and slaughters (e.g., during the Crusades and the Black Death), obligatory Christianization, confiscation of Jewish properties, and even expulsion from several countries (England in 1290, France in 1306 and 1394, Spain in 1492, and Portugal in 1497). Jews were also frequently isolated in designated areas (ghettos), forced to wear distinctive clothes, or permitted only certain professions such as tax collection and lending money on usury, which consolidated their negative stereotype in the common consciousness.

The advent of modernity, with its emphasis on humanism and rationalism, failed to put an end to the lingering medieval convictions and discriminatory regulations. In the face of industrialization and secularization, religious arguments yielded to rational ones. Anti-Semitism changed shape in the 19th century, when economic and political aspects became vital motives for a negative attitude toward Jews. Jews were now deemed as unscrupulous competitors in economic life and pretenders to world rule. These conceptions were strengthened by modern ideologies. The birth of nationalism brought the ethnic dimension of anti-Semitism to the forefront. Its most severe expression occurred in Nazi Germany, where anti-Semitism became the core part of the Nazis’ official ideology and resulted in the Holocaust. Distrust toward Jews was also an important element of communistic ideology, which pictured Jews as the exploitative class and as plotters against communist authorities.

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