Akbar (1556–1605)

Akbar, one of India's greatest Mughal emperors, was touted as one of the most open to diverse religious points of view. But he also used this position of tolerance as a way of consolidating his imperial control over vast regions of the Indian subcontinent. His policy of sulh-i-kul (“universal tolerance”) did not discriminate against persons on the ground of religion. At the same time, Akbar's thirst for theological knowledge was proverbial, and he participated in lively discussions with religious scholars from a variety of traditions.

Abul Fazl Allami (1551–1602), his court historian, enumerated the emperor's divine right theory of kingship. The emperor was regarded as being farri i-izdi (“a light emanating from God”). The mahzarnama (“doctrine of infallibility”) was drafted in 1579 to contain the influence of religious leaders. The emperor was Imam Adil (“a just ruler”) with the title of Mujtahid (“having infallible authority”).

Akbar started a new religious practice called Tauhid-i-Ilahi (“divine monotheism”) or Din-i-Ilahi (“Divine Religion”) in 1582. It was not only a reflection of his liberal outlook and faith in eclecticism but also an expression of the absolute power of the emperor. The followers of Din-i-Ilahi had to carry a miniature portrait of the emperor in their turbans and pledged to sacrifice life as well as honor for him. It was not a new religion, and Akbar made it clear that he had not abandoned his own religion, Islam. The interpretation by Jesuit missionaries and orthodox mullahs (theologians guarding Islamic custom) had generated much confusion regarding the nature of Din-i-Ilahi. It did not have any priesthood, prophet, god, revealed books, or rituals. It was a conglomeration of elements such as monotheism, nature worship, mysticism, and philosophical doctrines from different religions. As an ethical system, it stressed virtues such as kindness, prudence, and piety. Vices such as lust, arrogance, and slander were to be abjured. Akbar introduced the Ilahi era in 1584, a solar calendar prepared by the royal astrologer Amir Fatehullah Seraji (d. 1588). Raja Birbal (1528–1586), a minister in Akbar's court, was the first to embrace Din-i-Ilahi. It had only 19 followers and died a natural death after Akbar.

The Mughal state under Akbar was not a theocratic one. The criteria for appointment to high offices in his regime were based on merit, irrespective of a person's religion. The zimmis, or non-Muslims, did not have to pay the discriminatory tax called jizya. The Emperor participated in Hindu festivals, and he did not force his Rajput Hindu queens to embrace Islam. The liberal religious outlook of the emperor was not universally appreciated, especially within the orthodox elements of Islam. One of the responses to Akbar was the rise of a conservative Muslim revivalism. The religious milieu of the Indian subcontinent witnessed remarkable changes under Akbar. The interaction between Hinduism and Islam resulted in changes in both religions. On the one hand, there was the liberalism promoted by Akbar, and on the other, there was conservatism in both the religions, partly in response to the liberal attitudes of the court.