Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

The term genetically modified organism (GMO) is used to refer to plants, animals, and microorganisms whose DNA has been purposefully altered by the direct incorporation (or deletion) of one or more genes to introduce or modify a special characteristic. (Other terms used are transgenic, genetically manipulated, or genetically engineered organisms.) GMOs include pharmaceuticals such as human insulin, which was developed in 1978 and was the first product to show the business potential of the new recombinant DNA technology.

Although the biotechnology industry frequently represents the products of genetic engineering as just the latest stage in a long history of modifications introduced into plants or animals, it is only in recent decades that it has become possible to routinely transfer genes within and across species in ways that are unlikely to occur in nature. A striking difference is that while traditional biotechnology may cross one species with another, these species are always closely related (e.g., apples and pears), whereas genetic engineering has the ability to incorporate genes from one species, including bacteria, viruses, plants, or animals, into a totally unrelated species.

The extent to which GMOs diverge from natural processes has been seen as a great advantage by supporters of the technology, since it enables more effective and precise production of new plants and animals with desired characteristics compared with traditional methods that depend on random or induced mutations and crossbreeding. It has therefore been viewed as having the potential to revolutionize agriculture, food, medicine, environmental remediation, and other fields. However, an alternative view points to the potential risks of adopting a relatively untested new technology and letting its products loose in the world. There are fears that the pace of research and development of new organisms constantly exceeds the ability of policy and regulations to control potential adverse impacts. Genetic modification of animals provokes particularly strong objections for religious, ethical, and animal welfare reasons, except when it is [Page 1198]applied within a medical context. As a result, there has been relatively little interest in developing genetically modified (GM) animals, apart from the “oncomouse,” which was designed for medical use.

Although less contentious than GM animals or bacteria, concerns have also been expressed about GM plants. These revolve around three major issues. First, the control exercised by agricultural biotechnology corporations over farmers, such as restrictions on their right to save seeds; second, the potential environmental risks associated with GM crops, such as the development of herbicide-resistant superweeds and loss of beneficial insects and biodiversity (e.g., bees, wildflowers, and monarch butterflies); and third, the fears associated with consumption of foods derived from GM plants. Opponents point to the possibility that GM foods may result in resistance to antibiotics (due to the use of antibiotic marker genes in the production process) or contain unintended toxins or allergens. Contributing to this negative view is the fact that currently GM crops and foods have no discernible benefits for consumers, since the biotechnology corporations have concentrated on developing traits attractive to farmers and agribusiness, such as insect resistance, herbicide tolerance, and long shelf life.

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