Social Comparison Theory

Social comparison is a theoretical model that examines psychological phenomena when an individual compares some aspect of the self—body image, for example—to that of others who may be actual, imagined, or implied. Leon Festinger, who is well known for developing cognitive dissonance theory, developed the theory of social comparison in 1954. Much research has taken place based on social comparison theory since Festinger first suggested that comparing oneself to another was a basic human need. Over the years, the theory has been expanded and revised to go beyond self-evaluation to include self-improvement or enhancement, varying degrees of interest regarding social comparison among individuals, and consideration of an individual's social environment. With regard to the latter, social comparisons are influenced by social environment when one makes upward (someone is better off), downward (someone is worse off), or lateral comparisons (someone is like me). Considering an idealized image—celebrity or sports figure—prevalent in advertising, one would expect that comparisons would be made in the upward direction, although it is clearly possible that the individual will evaluate the idealized image as one that is unattainable and may feel threatened in a way that affects the individual's self-esteem. Research has shown that viewing images of those less fortunate, however, directs comparison downward. Complexity grows when one considers that evaluation of an inferior other as beneath or worse off might lead to self-enhancement.

In the mid-1990s, feminist author Jean Kilbourne, among others, brought focus to the social costs extracted through young women's social comparison with ultra-thin models. She argues that the repetition of ideals that are unattainable by most women fuels a crisis rooted in eating disorders and low self-esteem, among other social issues. It was not until 2000 that research began to give full consideration to the implications for social comparison of idealized images on masculine gender identity. With regard to cross-sex comparisons, research indicates that when a male looks at the image of a very attractive female and evaluates her as someone with whom he would have no chance of developing a relationship, his self-esteem may be threatened. Sociologist Michael Kimmel, author of several books on masculinity, suggests that in American culture a successful male will adhere to standards including rugged individualism, adventurous spirit, risk taking, displays of physical prowess, and having a high degree of personal autonomy. However, research has shown that when men determine, after viewing such attributes in media, that they cannot attain those standards, they become depressed and dissatisfied with their bodies. Such research findings assume that the ideal muscular image of traditional masculinity is one that males desire to emulate but perhaps cannot. In fact, [Page 346]the basis for social comparison theory is the idea of emulation.

A unique twist on social comparison theory takes place when less than ideal images appear in media. Less than ideal images began to proliferate in U.S. and U.K. advertising during the mid-1990s, a trend that may be rooted in societal changes regarding men's roles, as traditional masculinity gave way to a more shifting gender identity that wavers between the traditional and the new. Also, advertisers have grown weary of utilizing sports figures, many of whom in recent years have fallen from grace: Tiger Woods, Andre Agassi, Michael Vick, Marion Jones, and Kobe Bryant are among them. Perhaps in response, some advertisers have opted to use less than ideal images, such as the cavemen who appeared in a long-running U.S. advertising campaign for GEICO insurance. The cavemen transcended their advertising platform when in 2007 the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) television network aired a short-lived sitcom based on these characters. With regard to social comparison theory, it is interesting to consider what happens when less than ideal images, like the cavemen, are presented in the media. Advertisers have also depicted men as wolves and werewolves and in a variety of socially awkward and perhaps humiliating positions, such as being caught in public without their pants. Based on social comparison theory, if looking at unattainable idealized images is depressing, then looking at less than ideal images would be uplifting or at least provide relief from the feeling of having to live up to the idealized other.

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