Graphic Novels

Although the scope of the term is frequently contested, in the broadest sense graphic novel is used to define sequential art that is published in bound volumes. Specifically, the self-contained illustrated narratives found in graphic novels are usually differentiated from those found in the majority of comics, which are published in a serial format as part of a continuing story. Generally speaking, when compared to comics, graphic novels are longer, address more mature themes, have more sophisticated prose, feature higher-quality art, and are given greater attention as serious literature by academic, artistic, and literary critics. Gendered representations in graphic novels have varied significantly across history and geography.

In the United States, graphic novels as such date back at least to the late 1970s, when they represented a fairly niche but emerging medium for publishing illustrated fiction. Although collections of bound and illustrated stories have existed for several centuries, the contemporary graphic novel was shaped in the late 1970s by the work of pioneers like Will Eisner (The Spirit), as well as publications by the likes of Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons (Watchmen), Frank Miller (Batman: The Dark Knight Returns), Art Spiegelman (Maus), and Englishman Neil Gaiman (Sandman) in the mid-1980s. Often marketed to adults, graphic novels are more likely than most mainstream comic books to include heavy usage of profanity and explicit depictions of sex and violence. In addition, many award-winning graphic novels have eschewed comic book conventions such as the inclusion of superheroes or superpowers, a reliance on rigidly defined gender roles to drive character development and romantic relationships, and an adherence to the traditional fantasy tropes of adolescent male readers.

Japanese manga should be considered one important influence on contemporary graphic novels, and many manga publications fit the basic definition given above. Manga, like graphic novels, are self-contained illustrated narratives often published in a book format. Popular since the 1940s and 1950s with Japanese children and since at least the 1970s with Japanese adults, the manga industry now accounts for just under half of all annual publishing sales in Japan. Because manga are typically directed to specific audiences, over time several tropes for representing gender have emerged across these publications. For example, manga are one of the primary forms of media in Japan for carrying stories about homosexual male relationships. Gay men are often depicted in manga as androgynous, sharing many of the same physical characteristics as female manga characters, such as large eyes and small hands. In addition, homosexual male relationships are often portrayed as mutually loving and nurturing, in sharp contrast to heterosexual relationships in manga, which depict relationships as male-centered and, at times, abusive. As Mark McLelland has noted, the largest audience for this genre is not homosexual men but rather heterosexual women, who are often overly sexualized (if young and single) or desexualized (if mothers) in the majority of Japanese manga.

In the mid-1990s, Japanese manga sales surged in the United States, reflecting an increased market for Western graphic novels. Like manga in both countries, graphic novels have a wider purchasing [Page 152]demographic than comic books. Unlike Japanese manga, however, Western graphic novels do not portray primarily stereotyped gender roles, even if abusive sex and violence against women are still common. For example, Frank Miller's popular Sin City series (1991–2000) frequently featured murders in the red light district, sadomasochistic protagonists, strippers, and other sexual content that shares some of the same characteristics of gender as presented in Japanese manga and most comic book franchises. However, other popular graphic novels have featured more progressive and positive depictions of women, such as those found in Persepolis, by Majane Satrapi, and in the Hugo Award–winning Girl Genius series, created by Phil and Kaja Foglio. These critically acclaimed publications have strong female protagonists who rely on their intelligence and personal values, rather than their sexuality, to solve crises and drive the narrative forward. It is worth noting that, compared to the comic book industry, women authors and illustrators are better represented in graphic novel publishing.

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