Androgyny

History of Masculinity and Femininity

Research on masculinity and femininity has been conducted for decades. In most psychological literature, the most accepted definitions of masculinity and femininity have stemmed from a trait-based perspective on men and women. In other words, masculinity is defined as having traits reflecting agency or instrumentality. Agentic, and therefore masculine, individuals easily act upon their environments. They take [Page 34]control and have power. Other traits commonly associated with masculinity are assertiveness and self-protection. Conversely, femininity is associated with communal traits. Communal individuals are other oriented and enjoy group interaction. They are social caretakers who are sensitive and helpful.

Early conceptualizations of masculinity and femininity tagged them as opposite ends of a one-dimensional concept known as sex role orientation. Masculinity and femininity were seen as interrelated constructs such that if one were masculine, it would be impossible to be feminine, and vice versa. In 1973, Anne Constantinople published a critique questioning the unidimensionality of masculinity and femininity. In response to this critique, new sex role orientation measures were developed that redefined the way masculinity and femininity were conceptualized.

Definition and Measurement of Androgyny

If masculinity and femininity are separate, unipolar constructs, measures of masculinity and femininity should assess the constructs in this manner. Two popular measures of sex role orientation emerged during the 1970s: the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). The BSRI was initially designed by having undergraduates rate how desirable it is for males and females to have each of 400 attributes. Traits that were rated as more desirable for a male were labeled masculine, and those that were labeled as more desirable for a female were labeled feminine. The final BSRI consisted of 60 traits: 20 masculine (including aggressive, independent and competitive), 20 feminine (including sympathetic, warm, and nurturing), and 20 neutral traits. To complete this questionnaire, participants indicate how descriptive each trait is of them. Those who score more highly on the masculine traits (compared with the feminine traits) are labeled as masculine. Feminine individuals score more highly on the feminine traits than the masculine traits. Androgynous individuals score highly on both masculinity and femininity. Undifferentiated individuals do not score highly on either masculinity or femininity.

Spence and Helmreich's PAQ is similar to the BSRI in that it includes gender-related traits on which participants rate themselves. The PAQ was designed by having participants indicate which, out of a series of traits, were more likely to be present in males or females. This is in contrast to the BSRFs design, which focused upon the desirability of the traits for each gender. Though the PAQ is shorter than the BSRI at only 16 items (8 masculine, 8 feminine), the scoring is similar in that participants who align themselves more closely with masculine traits are masculine, participants who align themselves more closely with feminine traits are feminine, and participants who align themselves with both masculine and feminine traits are androgynous. Despite the age of these inventories, the BSRI and PAQ are still the most widely used assessments of sex role orientation.

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