Xenophobia

The Causes of Xenophobia

Traditional evolutionary approaches to human history assume that in the process of adapting to the natural environment for survival, humans developed psychological mechanisms to secure kinship bonding and ethnic boundaries. It is argued that an essential human fear of the unknown and a fear of intrusion by others have created suspicion of and hostility toward “outsiders.” From a sociological perspective, xenophobia is not “inherently natural,” but socially constructed; it is motivated by social mechanisms designed to ensure group cohesion, to maintain social stratification, and to increase solidarity with one's own ethnic group. The resulting regional loyalties and national identities are socially maintained and reinforced by the nationalistic ideologies and values of any given society.

Various social science theories identify economic, social psychological, and cultural causes for xenophobia in contemporary societies. Accordingly, the causes of xenophobia are thought to originate in a societal judgment about a particular group of “others,” rather than in individual hatred of specific members of this group. Xenophobia is seen as a collective reaction to the perceived threat of a group for which actual personal experience is unnecessary. The economic and social structure of modern society, characterized by growing competition for scarce economic and social resources, may lead to increased hostility toward foreigners. Western capitalist democracies maintain ethnic barriers and inequality among majority and minority groups by encouraging competition over jobs in segmented labor markets characterized by high unemployment or underemployment. [Page 1420]The resulting rivalry and the continued erosion of the social safety net provided by the welfare state has revived an “us versus them” mentality between local and immigrant groups. Similarly, ethnic hostilities tend to intensify in times of political turmoil like civil war, leading to attacks on refugees.

Hence, it appears that xenophobia also increases in times of rapid social change and economic instability, when feelings of disgruntlement, disappointed expectations, frustration, and anxieties about an unknown future are heightened. In a climate of insecurity, those who have fewer opportunities, capabilities, and resources to deal with social changes will be at a higher risk of feeling threatened and open to antiforeigner sentiments. According to social psychological theories, the lower our self-esteem, the more threatened we feel by the unknown: Everything foreign is devalued as opportunities to increase our self-worth are sought. The political system, with the help of the major media, may encourage a climate in which xenophobia and violence are tolerated or even accepted as normal. By fostering the perceived threat of large numbers of immigrants as well as spreading arguments about cultural incompatibility, the media can serve to reinforce hostile feelings. These processes are fertile ground for the institutionalization of racist ideologies through increased organization of right-wing parties and militant groups.

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